Seawater Desalination: A Review of Forward Osmosis Technique, Its Challenges, and Future Prospects
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Challenge of Global Water Scarcity
Global Freshwater Demands and Water Scarcity-Stress Situations
3. Seawater Desalination
3.1. Overview of Major Desalination Technologies
3.1.1. Thermal Seawater Desalination Technologies
3.1.2. Membrane Desalination Processes
3.2. Brief Insights—Energy and Economic Implications of Desalination
4. Forward Osmosis
4.1. Benefits and Applications of Forward Osmosis
4.2. Research Trends on FO Technology
4.3. FO Life Cycle
5. Forward Osmosis Desalination Process
5.1. Selection Criteria for Draw Solutes
5.2. Draw Solutes in Forward Osmosis Processes
5.2.1. Non-Responsive Draw Solutes
5.2.2. Responsive Draw Solutes and Synthetic Materials
5.3. FO Membrane Developments
5.3.1. Design Criteria of FO Membranes
5.3.2. FO Membrane Types
Cellulose Based Membranes
Thin-Film Composite Membranes
Carbon Based Membranes
5.3.3. Membrane Fouling
5.3.4. Concentration Polarization
5.3.5. Reverse Salt Flux
5.4. Draw Solutes Development and Draw Solutions Regeneration
5.5. Combination of FO with Other Technologies
Solar Energy Integrated FO Desalination
6. Challenges and Future Perspectives in FO Technology for Water Desalination
6.1. Design of Suitable DS
6.2. Engineered Fabrication of Membrane
6.3. Energy Efficiency
6.4. Cost Effective Desalination Systems
7. Conclusions
- the development of functional materials with the right mix of properties that maintains and sustains non-equilibrium in solute concentrations as draw solutes in FO processes could offer a solution to the challenges related to ideal DS;
- the challenge of membrane fouling in FO applications could potentially be addressed through fabrication of high permeability switchable membranes;
- research in direct solar FO desalination could potentially offer solution to achieving sustainable energy savings in FO desalination;
- small-scale system and point of entry systems could provide more opportunity to equitably guarantee future clean water supply in a situation of both lack and economic water scarcity.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Desalination Method * | Capital Costs (Million US$/MLD) | O&M (US$/m3) | Cost of Water Production (US$m3) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Average | Range | Average | Range | Average | ||
MSF | 1.7–3.1 | 2.1 | 0.22–0.30 | 0.26 | 1.02–1.74 | 1.44 | |
MED–TVC | 1.2–2.3 | 1.4 | 0.11–0.25 | 0.14 | 1.12–1.50 | 1.39 | |
SWRO Mediterranean Sea | 0.8–2.2 | 1.2 | 0.25–0.74 | 0.35 | 0.64–1.62 | 0.98 | |
SWRO Arabian Gulf | 1.2–1.8 | 1.5 | 0.36–1.01 | 0.64 | 0.96–1.92 | 1.35 | |
SWRO Red Sea | 1.2–2.3 | 1.5 | 0.41–0.96 | 0.51 | 1.14–1.70 | 1.38 | |
SWRO Atlantic and Pacific oceanic | 1.3–7.6 | 4.1 | 0.71–0.41 | 0.21 | 0.88–2.86 | 1.82 | |
Hybrid | MSF/MED | 1.5–2.2 | 1.8 | 0.41–0.25 | 0.23 | 0.95–1.37 | 1.15 |
SWRO | 1.2–2.4 | 1.3 | 0.29–0.44 | 0.35 | 0.85–1.12 | 1.03 |
Rank | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 MIGD *, Steam price: 0.008$/MJ | Draw solute | C4H8O | NH4OH | C3H6O2 | NH4HCO3 | C2H6O | CH4O | C3H8O |
Total cost ($/t) | 1.372 | 2.010 | 3.837 | 3.959 | 4.201 | 4.512 | 4.609 | |
100 MIGD, Steam price: 0.008$/MJ | Draw solute | C4H8O | NH4OH | C3H6O2 | NH4HCO3 | C2H6O | CH4O | C3H8O |
Total cost ($/t) | 0.955 | 1.620 | 3.264 | 3.459 | 3.854 | 4.060 | 4.254 | |
1 MIGD, Steam price: 0.0001$/MJ | Draw solute | NH4OH | CH4O | C2H6O | C4H8O | NH4HCO3 | C3H8O | C3H6O2 |
Total cost ($/t) | 0.275 | 0.343 | 0.344 | 0.348 | 0.395 | 0.402 | 0.545 | |
100 MIGD, Steam price: 0.0001$/MJ | Draw solute | NH4OH | NH4HCO3 | C4H8O | CH4O | C2H6O | C3H8O | C3H6O2 |
Total cost ($/t) | 0.092 | 0.093 | 0.112 | 0.120 | 0.121 | 0.137 | 0.388 |
Company | Material and Type | Configuration | Status | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aquaporin A/S (AQP) | Biometric aquaporin | Flat sheet, Hollow fibre | Commercial | [59] |
Fluid Technology Solutions | Cellulose triacetate | Flat sheet | Development | |
Oasys Water | Thin film composite (TFC) | Flat sheet | Engineering application | |
Nitto Denko | Composite membrane | Flat sheet, Hollow fibre | Commercial | |
Woongjin Chemical Company Ltd. | Composite membrane | Flat sheet, Hollow fibre | Commercial | |
Samsung Co. Ltd. | Composite membrane | Flat sheet | Development | |
Porifera | TFC | Flat sheet | Commercial | [60] |
Koch | Proprietary | Spiral wound | Commercial | [61] |
Toyobo | Proprietary | Hollow fibre | Commercial | [29] |
Toray | TFC | Spiral wound | Development | [29,62,63] |
HydroxsysTM | Polyethylene | Not reported | Pre-commercial | [64] |
Draw Solution Category | Draw Solution | Osmotic Pressure | Water Flux (Feed Solution & Membrane Type Employed) | Recovery Process(es) Employed | Drawbacks | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Organic compounds | Glycine betaine (1.40 mol/kg) Glycine (1.24 mol/kg) L-proline (1.27 mol/kg) | 2.35 MPa 2.42 MPa 2.64 MPa | 4.83±0.15 L/m2h 4.59±0.38 L/m2h 4.31±0.57 L/m2h Deionised (DI) water/CTA | Anaerobic digestion | Severe dilutive ICP, Potentially cost intensive DS replacement, Biodegradation of DS and loss of DS via reverse salt flux. High membrane bio-fouling potential | [95] |
EDTA sodium | 0.55 MPa (0.1 to 1.0 M) | 4.02 to 13.08 L/m2.h (Activated sludge—CTA cartridge type membrane) | Nanofiltration | Potential membrane impairment due to sludge deposition | [96] | |
Glucose (C6H12O6) | 5.6 MPa (2.0 M) | 0.37 L/m2h (tomato juice—TFC aromatic polyamide) | Direct application | ICP effects necessitated by high molecular sizes of draw solutes | [97,98,99,100,101] | |
Fructose (C6H12O6) | 5.6 MPa (2.0 M) | 2.5 L/m2h (0.5 M NaCl—thin layer cotton-derived cellulose-ester plastics embedded on to of a microfiltration membrane | Direct application | [98,99] | ||
Sucrose (C12H12O11) | 2.7 MPa (1.0 M) | 12.9 L/m2h (DI water—CA hollow fiber) | Nanofiltration | Low water flux | [102] | |
Ethanol (C2H6O) | 5.1 MPa (2.0 M) | Unstated | Pervaporation-based separation | High reverse salt flux and low water flux | [103] | |
Sodium formate (HCOONa) | 31.4 MPa (at saturation) | 2.6 µm/s at 2.8 MPa (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | RO process | High reverse salt flux, Potentially cost intensive DS replacement | [104] | |
Sodium acetate (C2H3NaO2) | 27.0 MPa (at saturation) | 2.5 µm/s at 2.8MPa (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | Potentially cost intensive DS replacement relative to inorganic salts | |||
Sodium propionate (C3H5NaO2) | N/A | 2.41 µm/s at 2.8 MPa (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | ||||
Magnesium acetate (Mg(CH3COO)2) | 10.3 MPa (at saturation) | 2.25 µm/s at 2.8 MPa (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | ||||
HN(Me)2Cy HCO3 | ~33 MPa (7.6 mol/kg) | 10 L/m2h at 7.6 mol/kg (2 mol/kg NaCl—CTA flat sheet) | CO2 induced phase separation | Degradation of FO membrane | [58] | |
Volatile compounds | Ammonium bicarbonate (NH4HCO3) | 6.7 MPa (2.0 M) | 2.04 µm/s (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | Heating—decomposition into NH3 and CO2 | Low solubility in water, High reverse salt flux, Potentially cost intensive DS replacement, Not thermally stable | [44,92,98,105,106] |
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) | Not stated | Not stated | Heating air stripping or distillation | Volatile, Corrosive, Unstable in solution | [107] | |
Nonresponsive draw solutes | Potassium chloride (KCl) | 9.1 MPa (2.0 M) | 6.337 µm/s (DI water—CA embedded in polyester woven mesh) | Direct application | High reverse salt flux | [41,44] |
Sodium chloride (NaCl) | 10.2 MPa (2.0 M) | 2.68 µm/s (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | RO process, Distillation/RO, Direct application | High reverse salt flux | [44,97,108,109,110,111] | |
Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) | 8.9 MPa (2.0 M) | 5.348 µm/s (DI water—CA embedded in polyester woven mesh) | Direct application | High reverse salt flux | [41,44] | |
Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) | 6.6 MPa (2.0 M) | 4.177 µm/s (DI water—CA embedded in polyester woven mesh) | Direct application | High reverse salt diffusion | [41] | |
Potassium bromide (KBr) | 9.1 MPa (2.0 M) | 2.84 µm/s (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | RO process | Very high reverse salt diffusion, Potentially cost intensive DS replacement | [44] | |
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) | 4.7 MPa (2.0) | 2.47 µm/s (DI water—CTA flat sheet | Low water solubility, Contain scale precursor ions | |||
Potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3) | 8.0 MPa—(2.0 M) | 2.25 µm/s (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | Reverse salt flux, Contain scale precursor ions, Not easily recovered by RO | |||
Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) | 26.0 MPa (2.0 M) | 2.33 µm/s (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | NF/direct application | Reverse salt flux, High viscosity Low diffusion coefficient, Mg2+ potential to effect membrane fouling via complexing with some functional groups | [44,108] | |
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) | 22.1 MPa (2.0 M) | 2.64 µm/s (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | RO process | Reverse salt flux, Contain scale precursor ions, | [44,97,108] | |
Ammonium sulphate ((NH4)2SO4) | 9.3 MPa (2.0 M) | 5.391 µm/s (DI water—CT embedded in polyester woven mesh) | Direct application | Reverse salt flux, Potentially cost intensive DS replacement | [41,44] | |
Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) | 9.7 MPa (2.0 M) | 2.14 µm/s (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | Nanofiltration | Reverse salt flux, Contain scale precursor ions | [44] | |
Potassium sulphate (K2SO4) | 3.3 MPa (2.0 M) | 2.52 µm/s (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | RO process | Reverse salt flux, Low water solubility, Potentially cost intensive DS replacement. | ||
Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) | 5.6 MPa (2.0 M) | 1.54 µm/s (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | Nanofiltration | Reverse salt flux, High viscosity, Low water solubility, Contain scale precursor ions | ||
Copper sulphate (CuSO4) | 3.0 MPa (220, 000 ppm) | 3.57 L/m2h (5, 050 ppm NaCl—CTA flat sheet) | Metathesis precipitation with barium hydroxide, and then sulphuric acid | Low water flux, FO process severely affected by concentration polarization effect | [50] | |
Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) | 8.2 MPa (2.0 M) | 5.706 µm/s (DI water—CA embedded in polyester woven mesh) | Direct application | High reverse salt flux | [41] | |
Potassium nitrate (KNO3) | 6.6 MPa (2.0 M) | 4.429 µm/s DI water CA embedded in polyester woven mesh) | High reverse salt flux Toxic, Energy intensive | |||
Diammonium phosphate ((NH4)2HPO4) | 9.6 MPa (2.0 M) | 3.892 µm/s (DI water—CA embedded in polyester mesh) | Reverse slat flux, Low water flux | |||
Ammonium phosphate (NH4H2PO4) | 7.7 MPa (2.0 M) | 4.349 µm/s (DI water—CA embedded in polyester mesh) | Reverse salt flux Low water flux | |||
Calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2) | 11.0 MPa (2.0 M) | 50.22 µm/s DI water—CA embedded in polyester woven mesh) | Direct application | Potentially cost intensive DS replacement, Poor water extraction capacity | [41,44] | |
Responsive draw solutes | Polyacrylic acid MNPs (PAA MNPs) | Up to 7.1 MPa (0.08mol/L) | 10 to 17 L/m2h (DI water—HTI membrane) | Magnetic field separation, Ultrafiltration | Drop in water flux due to agglomeration of MNPs | [54,55,56] |
2-pyrolidone based MNPs (2-pyrol MNPs) | Unstated | 0.5 to 5 L/m2h (DI water—HTI membrane) | ||||
Triethylene glycol MNPs (TREG MNPs) | 0.5 to 5 L/m2h (DI water—HTI membrane) | |||||
Polyethylene glycol diacid MNPs (PEG-(COOH)2MNPs) | 5.6 to 7.4 MPa (0.065 mol/L) | 5.3 to 9.1 L/m2h DI water—CTA flat sheet) | [53] | |||
Nano size dextran coated ferric oxide MNPs (Fe3O4) | Unstated | 3.25 to 4 L/m2h (DI water—HTI membrane) | External magnet | [52] | ||
2-methylimidaxole based compounds with monovalent and divalent charges | 5.0 to 15 MPa (2.0 M) | 0.1 to 20 L/m2h (DI water—CTA flat sheet) | FO-MD integrated process | High ICP effect when using compound with divalent charge, High reverse solute flux, Potentially cost intensive DS replacement | [112] | |
Polyelectrolyte of polyacrylic acid sodium (PAA-Na) | 2.5-4.6 MPa (0.72 mg/L) | 13 to 21 L/m2h (DI water—CA hollow fibre) | FO-MD integrated process, Ultrafiltration | Reverse salt flux, High viscosity | [113] | |
Thermo-sensitive polyelectrolytes | Up to 8.9 MPa (14.28 wt.% polyelectrolytes with different sodium acrylate content) | 0.05 to 075 L/m2h (DI water—HTI membrane) | Hot ultrafiltration | Poor water flux | [114] | |
Polymer hydrogels | 2.7 MPa | 0.55 to 1.1 L/m2h (2000 ppm NaCl—HTI membrane) | Direct application, Heating, Pressure stimuli | Energy intensive, Poor water flux | [57,115] | |
Acyl-TAEA | N/A | N/A | High temperature | Poor water flux | [116] | |
Micelles close to Kraft point | 9.5 MPa | 4.73 to 16.14 L/m2h (n.a) | Temperature swing with low grade heat and crystallization | Low diffusivity | [117] | |
Dendrimers | 2279813 Pa (20 wt. %) | Unexamined | Wide range of pH value, and ultrafiltration | Somewhat inexpedient in practice | [51] | |
Albumin | 4.8 MPa (30 wt. %) | Denatured and solidified upon heating | ||||
Concentrated RO brines | Unmeasured | 8.8 to 11 L/m2h | RO process | Precipitation of organic salts on membrane surface | [55] | |
Hexavalent phosphate | Unmeasured | 6 (Na salt) to 7 (Li salt) L/m2h (DI water—HTI membrane) | Direct application | Hydrolysis CTA membrane | [118] | |
Carbon based nanoparticles | Polymer-graphene composite hydrogels | Unmeasured | 6.8 to 8.2 L/m2h (DI water/200 ppm NaCl—HTI membrane) | Heating | Poor water flux | [119] |
Potassium carbon nanofibers (TEG-K/CNF) | 2.8 to 7.0 MPa (0.05 to 0.2 wt. %) | 10.5 to 13.3 L/m2h (3.0 wt.% NaCl—CTA flat sheet) | Solar evaporation | Decline in water flux | [48] |
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Aende, A.; Gardy, J.; Hassanpour, A. Seawater Desalination: A Review of Forward Osmosis Technique, Its Challenges, and Future Prospects. Processes 2020, 8, 901. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080901
Aende A, Gardy J, Hassanpour A. Seawater Desalination: A Review of Forward Osmosis Technique, Its Challenges, and Future Prospects. Processes. 2020; 8(8):901. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080901
Chicago/Turabian StyleAende, Aondohemba, Jabbar Gardy, and Ali Hassanpour. 2020. "Seawater Desalination: A Review of Forward Osmosis Technique, Its Challenges, and Future Prospects" Processes 8, no. 8: 901. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080901