GameOn!: A Constructionist Serious Game for Environmental Education and Citizen Science Engagement in Primary Schools

Abstract

Digital transformation in education enables the integration of interactive tools that foster engagement, creativity, and sustainability awareness among young learners. GameOn! is a serious game using Minecraft Education Edition (MEE) to promote sustainability, inclusivity, and peace among primary school students aged 6–11. Grounded in Constructionism, Experiential Learning Theory, and Citizen Science (CS), it is designed to support connections between classroom experiences and real-world environmental actions. The project followed a co-design methodology involving international partners and educators to develop the GameOn! MEE world and a complementary teacher toolkit. The game was later tested in three Italian primary schools, involving 100 students through both guided and free play sessions. Findings show that 95% of students enjoyed the game, 89% learned new concepts, and teachers observed great focus and engagement during structured play. These results align with our observations: most children quickly engaged with the game, adapted to its mechanics, and demonstrated understanding of key tasks. Some usability challenges emerged, emphasizing the importance of facilitation. Overall, the findings suggest that GameOn!, consistent with the pedagogical potential of other serious games, could enhance sustainability literacy, active citizenship, and environmental awareness in early education. Future work will expand its implementation and further strengthen the integration of CS-based activities. Future work will expand implementation and strengthen the integration of CS-based activities.

1. Introduction

The digitization of education in Europe is transforming and reshaping traditional teaching-learning methods. This process is smoothing the path toward a variety of educational models thanks to innovative digital tools (Ricoy & Sánchez-Martínez, 2019). Such innovation in European classrooms favors the enhancement of quality and accessibility of education (Goel, 2020) and the preparation of students with diverse needs for an ever-changing digital future (Apriyanti et al., 2014; Sachinidou et al., 2025).

Inevitably, the digitization of education poses significant challenges regarding disparities in the opportunities of accessing digital resources (by individuals, by states, and by regions) and the necessary development of effective digital literacy among educators (Chelliah & Clarke, 2011; Cruz-Jesus et al., 2016). The academic literature explores the effects of digital tools integration in educational institutions, by discussing frameworks, theoretical advances, and their impact on quality and equity in the European context (Guitert et al., 2021).

Educational games in this context have proven effective at engaging students, particularly in primary education settings, and enhancing their participation (Bellotti et al., 2013; Tarigan et al., 2025). However, educational games and serious games do not always align with schools’ pedagogical needs and modalities (Sarlis et al., 2025).

If on the one side of the coin there’s the need for standardization in terms of innovative tools for education, on the other side there’s the call for personalized experiences (Bontchev et al., 2021) that can resonate with the students and their culture (Mortara et al., 2014).

In this sense, the European education system reflects the cultural, linguistic, and historical mosaic of its different nations. Each country has its particular approach to education, and within each country, the educational institutions adapt to a variety of regions and local realities. Nonetheless, a shared foundation for coordination has emerged, as European countries increasingly align their educational strategies with digital innovation and global policy frameworks (Dorneanu et al., 2022; Kalimullina et al., 2021). A clear example of this trend is the shared objectives outlined in the Agenda 2030 and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)1.

Responding to this combination of shared European goals and local educational diversity, GameOn! is positioned as a participatory, co-designed serious (video)game developed within the framework of the GameOn! European project (see Section 4). The game is conceived as a shared educational tool crafted with European schools in mind, while remaining sensitive to national and regional specificities.

2. Related Work

Innovation of education comes in a variety of approaches, methods and tools; in this study we focus on games as the media.

2.1. Games and Education

Games represent effective educational tools in primary education, providing interactive and experiential learning environments that enhance personalization, relevance, and engagement. Through simulations and game-based activities, students can progress at their own pace while interacting with content aligned to their interests and abilities (Honey & Hilton, 2011). Beyond academic learning, gameplay supports cognitive, emotional, and social development, fostering critical thinking, collaboration, and communication (Kelly et al., 2012; Schrier, 2017), as well as soft skills such as resilience, perseverance (Neys et al., 2014), and sportsmanship (Ferguson et al., 2013). Educational games have also been shown to support students’ mental well-being (Russoniello et al., 2009; Snodgrass et al., 2011; Wack & Tantleff-Dunn, 2009). When aligned with curriculum standards, game-based approaches reinforce key concepts through experiential learning and can be adapted to support inclusivity and diverse learning needs.

2.1.1. Serious Games

Within the broader landscape of educational games, serious games constitute a distinct category of digital games explicitly designed to achieve educational, training, or societal objectives (De Freitas & Liarokapis, 2011). Unlike games developed primarily for entertainment, serious games integrate curricular or instructional content directly into the gameplay experience. By leveraging the motivational and immersive qualities inherent in games, serious games aim to engage learners deeply and enhance learning or training outcomes within structured yet dynamic environments (Sachinidou et al., 2025; Schrader, 2022).

Moreover, serious games are extensively employed in game-based learning due to their ability to simulate real-world tasks in a virtual environment, enabling students to engage in “learning by doing” or “learning by playing” experiences (Schrader, 2022). Game-based learning encompasses the process and practice of learning through games, whereas game-based pedagogy focuses on the process and practice of teaching with games from the educators’ perspective (Becker & Becker, 2017). Thus, while game-based learning and pedagogy represent methodologies, serious games serve as the tools utilized within these methodologies, particularly well-suited for tackling complex subjects (Huang et al., 2024).

Consequently, to foster such an environment, serious games utilize various gaming mechanics, including (i) clearly defined goals, (ii) challenges, (iii) reward systems, (iv) feedback mechanisms, and (v) narrative structures. These components fuse to create compelling experiences that are aligned with the intended educational or societal objectives.

These mechanics are particularly relevant in educational contexts that aim to promote systems thinking, ethical reasoning, and civic engagement, where learners must actively negotiate complex cause-and-effect relationships.

Overall, serious games prove to be versatile and effective in addressing complex real-world issues, such as sustainability and the SDGs. They achieve this by simplifying the narration of multifaceted topics through interactive digital tools and visual representations, thereby rendering them accessible and engaging for learners (Katsaliaki & Mustafee, 2012; Stanitsas et al., 2019; Zambon & Prandi, 2023).

2.1.2. Minecraft Education Edition

Minecraft Education Edition (MEE) is one of the most widely adopted platforms for serious games in formal education, hosting a large and continuously growing repository of user-generated educational experiences. Prior research reports diverse applications of MEE-augmented teaching across multiple domains, including programming (Klimová et al., 2021), mathematics (Ming, 2020), STEAM education and sustainability-related topics (Kersánszki et al., 2023), as well as the development of transversal and soft skills beyond traditional curricular subjects (Slattery et al., 2023b).

A key strength of MEE lies in its derivation from the commercial videogame Minecraft, which preserves the core mechanics and affordances of a highly successful and culturally familiar game, with over 300 million copies distributed worldwide2. Unlike purpose-built educational software, MEE operates as a fully fledged game environment, embedding educational content within an intrinsically motivating and immersive virtual world (Honey & Hilton, 2011). This characteristic has been shown to support student engagement, personalization, and exploratory learning in primary education contexts (Molin, 2017; Slattery et al., 2024).

The platform’s high degree of flexibility allows educators to design, modify, and adapt learning experiences to different subjects, learning objectives, and student needs. While this adaptability contributes to MEE’s scalability across educational settings, the literature also highlights the need for structured approaches that support curriculum alignment, reuse, and systematic customization of educational content within such open-ended environments.

2.2. Active Citizenship in Education

Active citizenship is a core objective of contemporary European education policy, closely aligned with the principles outlined in the European Education Area and the United Nations’ Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development (Ancheta-Arrabal & Preckler Galguera, 2025). In particular, it resonates with SDG 4 (Quality Education), which emphasizes inclusive, equitable education and the promotion of lifelong learning opportunities that foster responsible and engaged citizens.

Within this policy framework, education is increasingly expected to go beyond the transmission of disciplinary knowledge and to support the development of transversal competences, including critical thinking, collaboration, civic responsibility, and ethical awareness. Research indicates that educational approaches grounded in real-world, socially relevant contexts are particularly effective in fostering these competencies and in promoting students’ engagement with societal and environmental challenges (Jenkins, 2011; Kenyon et al., 2020).

Active citizenship-oriented educational practices encourage learners to reflect on local and global issues—such as sustainability, environmental protection, and social inclusion—thus reinforcing connections with SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions). Through participatory and collaborative learning experiences, students develop a sense of agency and responsibility, recognizing their role in contributing to collective well-being and democratic processes (Álamo Bolaños et al., 2024).

Empirical studies highlight that hands-on and discussion-based activities support the acquisition of key civic competences, including communication, cooperation, and perspective-taking, which are central to democratic participation and social cohesion (Ceccarini et al., 2023; Panizo-Lledot et al., 2022). Furthermore, civic competence frameworks developed in recent European educational research emphasize the interconnection among community involvement, collaboration, and communicative skills as foundational to active citizenship and sustainability education (Bombardelli, 2024; Medne et al., 2024). These approaches also contribute to fostering environmental stewardship and long-term civic awareness, aligning with European policy priorities related to sustainability, social responsibility, and community engagement.

Despite its recognized importance, embedding active citizenship within formal education presents challenges, particularly in terms of curricular constraints, time limitations, and resource availability. Consequently, the literature emphasizes the need for structured, scalable educational approaches that allow students to engage meaningfully with complex societal issues while remaining compatible with school curricula and institutional contexts (Roche et al., 2020; Shah & Martinez, 2016). Addressing these challenges is essential to ensuring that education systems effectively contribute to the development of informed, responsible, and active citizens capable of supporting the objectives of Agenda 2030 and European educational strategies.

3. Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framewo rk of GAME combines perspectives from Constructionism, Make-Centered Learning, Game-Based Learning (GBL), Flow Theory, and Citizen Science to conceptualize learning as an active, collaborative, and socially situated process. Together, these perspectives compose a unified pedagogical approach, where Constructionism and Make-Centered Learning provide the epistemological foundation for learning through creation and collaboration; GBL contributes the design principles through which challenge, feedback, exploration, and progression are structured; Flow theory explains how these mechanics can sustain engagement and intrinsic motivation; and Citizen Science extends learning beyond the classroom by connecting gameplay activities to real-world environmental participation and civic responsibility.

3.1. Game-Based Learning

GBL refers to educational approaches that employ games and gameplay principles to support learning processes through interaction, experimentation, feedback, and problem-solving (Gee, 2003; Plass et al., 2015). Unlike gamification, which introduces isolated game elements into non-game contexts, GBL situates learning within coherent gameplay experiences where educational objectives are embedded directly into player actions and decisions (Deterding et al., 2011). Contemporary GBL literature emphasizes that effective educational games combine motivational engagement with opportunities for situated learning, collaboration, reflection, and agency (Kiili, 2005; Plass et al., 2015). In this sense, games are not merely motivational tools but structured environments in which learners actively construct understanding through participation and exploration (Gee, 2003). These perspectives overlap significantly with constructionist approaches, particularly in sandbox and creative environments such as Minecraft Education Edition, where learners develop knowledge through experimentation, shared creation, and iterative exploration (Nebel et al., 2016). Within GAME, GBL functions as the overarching pedagogical structure connecting gameplay mechanics with educational objectives related to sustainability and active citizenship. The game’s progression systems, collaborative activities, exploratory tasks, and real-world sustainability reflections are therefore designed not only to entertain learners, but also to support meaningful engagement, experiential learning, and socially situated knowledge construction.

3.2. Constructionism

Constructionism, as introduced by Papert, posits that learning is most effective when individuals are actively engaged in the creation of tangible artifacts. This approach emphasizes that knowledge is best acquired through the process of making, transforming abstract ideas into external, concrete forms, which in turn facilitates deeper understanding and retention (Papert, 1980, 1991, 1993).

Central to Constructionism is the concept of learning-by-doing (Papert, 1993). This principle suggests that learners internalize concepts and skills through direct, hands-on experience. Instead of passively receiving information from instructors, learners experiment, iterate, and solve problems as they work on projects. Such an active engagement not only reinforces technical competencies but also cultivates critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. By engaging with real-world challenges and working through the process of creation, learners develop a more personal and profound connection to the subject matter.

3.3. Make-Centred Learning

This study also draws on Make-Centered Learning as it extends these ideas by embedding the process of making within collaborative and interdisciplinary environments. It advocates for learning contexts where the creation of artifacts, whether digital or physical, is integrated into group activities, encouraging peer-to-peer interaction and collective problem solving (Kafai, 2012; Kafai & Resnick, 2012). MEE leverages such theoretical approaches in a virtual environment where students can collaborate, design, shape, and craft their world and narratives together. Their creations work as markers of the learning journey, providing tangible creations that elicit reflections on what they have shared and learned, gaining an enhanced understanding of underlying concepts through iterative experimentation, discussion, and reflection.

3.4. Flow

Furthermore, we draw upon the concept of “Flow”, as originally described by Csikszentmihalyi (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Csikzentimihalyi, 1975), to place our focus on engagement in learning settings, thereby enhancing our understanding of how meaningful learning can arise from profound, intrinsic motivation. Flow is a psychological condition where individuals are completely immersed in an activity, and they have prolonged concentration, integration of action and awareness, and an altered experience of time with intrinsic satisfaction from the activity itself (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). It happens when students encounter challenges appropriately leveled to their capacities with evident goals and quick feedback. In academic environments, flow induction can enhance motivation and engagement, aligning with the constructionist and experiential foundation of learning by doing, making, and active problem-solving.

3.5. Citizen Science

Citizen Science (CS) is a participatory research paradigm that involves non-professional actors in scientific processes such as data collection, analysis, and problem definition. Rooted in efforts to democratize scientific knowledge production, CS emphasizes collaboration between researchers and the public, fostering transparency, inclusivity, and mutual learning within scientific practice (Haklay, 2015; Irwin, 2002). Through this model, scientific inquiry is situated within everyday contexts, enabling participants to engage with scientific methods while contributing to the generation of knowledge relevant to societal and environmental challenges (Hecker et al., 2018).

From an educational perspective, CS can be understood as a framework that situates learning at the intersection of scientific inquiry, civic engagement, and real-world relevance. By engaging learners in authentic data-driven activities connected to their local contexts, CS aligns with constructivist and constructionist views of learning, where knowledge emerges through active participation and situated practice. In this sense, CS extends learning beyond the boundaries of formal educational environments, linking learners’ actions to broader scientific and societal processes (Bonney et al., 2016; Dickinson et al., 2010). Moreover, Jenkins (Jenkins, 2011) highlights the transformative potential of CS in education by fostering a sense of civic duty and environmental stewardship from an early age. Therefore, CS not only enriches children’s education but also cultivates a generation of informed and empowered global citizens ready to tackle the complex issues of the 21st century (Kenyon et al., 2020).

Within the context of this study, CS functions as a conceptual bridge between experiential learning and active citizenship. It provides a lens through which educational activities can be framed as contributions to shared knowledge and collective responsibility, reinforcing the connection between individual learning experiences and societal impact. As such, CS complements the constructionist, make-centered, and engagement-oriented foundations of the proposed framework by embedding learning activities within participatory and socially meaningful scientific practices.

Taken together, these perspectives frame GAME as a learning environment where knowledge emerges through active participation, collaboration, experimentation, and reflection. Constructionist and make-centered approaches inform the design of creative and collaborative gameplay activities, while GBL structures these experiences through progression, feedback, and exploration. Flow theory helps explain how these mechanics sustain engagement and intrinsic motivation, whereas Citizen Science connects gameplay to broader environmental and civic contexts. By integrating these perspectives, GAME supports experiential and socially situated learning that links in-game activities with real-world sustainability awareness and participation.

4. Project Aims and Objectives

GameOn! is a Creative Europe project3 funded by the European Education and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA). The primary objective of GameOn! is to enhance awareness of critical issues such as peace, inclusivity, and sustainability through an educational experience within a MEE world. The development of this serious game involved collaboration among the four GameOn! partners (Romagna Tech, ACCAC—Accessible Arts and Culture, Seals—Stichting for Education on Agility Liberating Structures and Politistiko Parko) from different European countries (respectively: Italy, Finland, the Netherlands, and Greece).

GameOn! delved into the field of gamification with a particular focus on developing interactive digital tools for the education of children aged between six and eleven years old. GameOn! is divided into two parts. The first one is the serious game GameOn!, where the player and their classrooms can share their learning adventures; the second part is a website called GoToolKit, which the educators can use to enhance their lessons with further educational content that the designers of GameOn! suggest as related.

These products aim to enhance children’s learning outcomes by fostering motivation and active participation through playful, interactive, and engaging digital experiences.

The partners involved in GameOn! developed a cross-disciplinary kit of digital educational products tailored for children, leveraging gamification to engage with various disciplines across the arts and humanities. The development process comprised a series of brainstorming sessions and a transnational creative residency, fostering a collaborative and innovation-driven approach to the design of the interactive digital tool. This process was informed by established work in the field, particularly the framework outlined by (Zambon & Prandi, 2023). Furthermore, tailored guidelines were elaborated to support development, and the resulting game was evaluated through dedicated events to assess its effectiveness and user engagement.

Moreover, GameOn! aims at increasing educators’ awareness of the tools and methodologies derived from a gamified, digital, and technological approach to cultural education. By doing so, GameOn! seeks to inspire a new generation of educators who could effectively integrate these innovative tools into their teaching practices, ultimately enriching the educational experience for children and fostering a lifelong love for curiosity and learning. To pursue this objective, the website GAME PLATFORM was created as a first landing platform for educators interested in bringing GameOn! to their classes. On this platform, educators can find instructions for playing the game, useful links, and information that they can use to enhance the teaching experience in their classrooms while using GameOn!. The GAME PLATFORM website is still in development and, with time, will be populated with more and more content relevant to GameOn!.

Co-Design, Development and Test-Events

Each partner reached out to experts from various fields and potential end-users, including educators, teachers, designers, museum curators, writers, musicians, entrepreneurs, and sociologists, to gauge their interest in participating in the GameOn! residency. Subsequently, the experts were asked to submit their curricula to Romagna Tech (the project coordinator), which then conducted a thorough evaluation and selected nineteen participants.

GameOn! chose MEE as its foundational platform due to its adaptability and the opportunities it offers in educational settings. Consequently, during the GameOn! residency, participants were divided into three diverse groups, each tasked with developing a game pathway4 focused on one of three core themes: inclusivity, peace, and sustainability. The residency’s activities were designed to maximize engagement and creativity, starting with an introductory session that set the project’s vision and included theatrical warm-up exercises to foster collaboration. The daily schedule featured plenary sessions, group work, and feedback meetings, which were essential for aligning individual efforts with the project’s overall goals. Ultimately, the residency concluded with a final showcase of the collaborative outcomes, demonstrating a cohesive design with unique ideas for each pathway in the GameOn! world.

Using the blueprints developed during the co-design residency, the development team undertook the creation of the GameOn! world. This process involved transforming the conceptual designs and educational goals into a fully functional digital environment. The team integrated various elements, including interactive challenges, narrative arcs, and educational content, to create an engaging and cohesive gameplay experience.

Additionally, leveraging the advanced features of MEE, the team created a virtual space where players could explore, learn, and interact with the content meaningfully. This development phase was critically important in converting initial ideas into a practical and impactful educational tool, showcasing the potential of serious games in modern education.

To evaluate our game, we conducted three test events, testing it with primary school students and educators to assess its engagement and educational impact.

5. Methodology

5.1. Description of the GameOn! World and Educational Activities

The GameOn! MEE Sustainability pathway has been developed to provide players with a comprehensive educational experience, integrate continuity, and a system of rewards for progression (Zambon et al., 2024). The foundational concept of this pathway begins with the Central Square Hub. This hub acts as the central starting point for the three distinct pathways (see Figure 1). These pathways are designed to reflect the cultural contexts of Italy, Finland, the Netherlands, and Greece, incorporating landscapes (Greek temples, tulip gardens, the Apennines, etc.) and fictional settings (such as Dante’s Inferno, the Moomins’ world, and many others literature or visual art references, etc.).

When players enter the game, they start at the Central Square Hub (see Figure 2). Here, they encounter Non-playable Characters (NPCs) and informational signs that provide the basic instructions to navigate the game. Surrounding the hub are small, unadorned houses, each assigned to a player. These houses are initially plain and can be customized and improved based on rewards collected through exploring the educational pathways.

Players have the option to interact with NPCs located in the central square to choose and teleport to one of the pathways, starting from the first level of their selected path. Each level is designed with guiding elements such as signs, colored streets, fences, and natural barriers, which help direct players toward their goals at various stations. Stations are designated areas within the game where players engage in tasks or challenges. These activities offer opportunities for educators to provide direct instruction and feedback.

The game is tailored to accommodate players between six and eleven years old while recognizing the diverse levels of Minecraft familiarity among these participants. Levels are constructed to be straightforward and accessible, with clear paths for younger or less experienced players and additional routes for those who seek further exploration. This design supports a structured learning process while permitting free exploration, with natural barriers and invisible walls preventing players from becoming disoriented or lost. In the Sustainability pathway, the player is guided by specific level design choices (e.g., visual cues to suggest directions, invisible walls, fences, non-accessible buildings or woods), which will bind them within the intended area of the level but give them enough space to feel free to explore and not feel constrained to a limited space.

To support sustained engagement, GameOn! incorporates a flow-informed gameplay progression system grounded in clear short-term goals (station), immediate feedback (NPC dialogues, rewards), and gradually increasing challenge complexity, in line with Flow theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Within this structure, each level presents players with explicit gameplay objectives (e.g., collect all the trash on the beach, plant the tulips in the garden, or more broadly, reach specific stations). At the same time, visual cues, NPC interactions, and progression mechanics provide continuous feedback on advancement—unlocking new areas, gates opening, reaching checkpoint areas. Rewards such as aesthetic customization items, unlockable tools, and collectible objects do not constitute the primary goals of gameplay themselves; rather, they function as reinforcing feedback and visible markers of progression that support motivation, competence, and long-term engagement. Environmental exploration and the discovery of hidden elements further contribute to players’ sense of autonomy and agency during gameplay.

For example, players’ houses in the Central Square Hub are initially white and unadorned but can be progressively upgraded and personalized using rewards gained from completing educational pathways and optional exploratory activities. As players advance, they unlock decorative elements, tools, and rare items, providing visible markers of progression that connect in-game achievement with personal expression.

These design principles are instantiated throughout the Sustainability pathway, with each level combining structured objectives, exploratory opportunities, and culturally situated narratives. Early levels are intentionally designed to introduce both gameplay mechanics and sustainability concepts in a concrete and accessible manner, allowing players to progressively build confidence while engaging with meaningful tasks. The first level provides a clear example of this approach.

The first level takes players to a Greek beach, where they are greeted by two non-playable characters (NPCs): the mayor and the local dustman. The beach is covered in trash, and players are asked to help clean it. Their goal is to make the area enjoyable again for their classmates and for the tourists who will later visit and express appreciation for their efforts.

At each level of the game, there are several references to the local culture and folklore, from colors to architecture (see Figure 2c) and arts, which teachers can elicit to spark interest in a given topic for their lectures. Furthermore, during the game, there are various opportunities to discuss environmental sustainability, and most of the in-game activities can be re-enacted in real life to show the direct link between sustainability and active citizenship to the students.

On the fourth level, the player approaches the “Hidden Garden”, a big and colorful garden (see Figure 3b) amidst the gray horizon of a big city (see Figure 3a). During this level, educators can teach about the importance of green areas in cities (social and environmental importance) and the importance of pollinators, even in urban areas. Herein, the classroom can participate in real-world activities; for example, they are invited to reflect on where in their local areas the city or village could host some bee hotels (see Figure 3c) or gather data about pollinators by counting them either in their local area or the school’s garden. Educators are encouraged to guide discussions on these activities, offering local examples and context to support and enhance the educational experience. This approach utilizes MEE’s capabilities to foster sustainable behaviors through CS initiatives while allowing for content adaptation to meet the specific needs of the students.

The game structure is designed to progressively link virtual exploration with real-world CS practices. While the initial levels introduce sustainability through interactive tasks such as recycling or restoring environments, later stages, such as the ‘Hidden Garden’, explicitly incorporate CS activities. Here, students engage in data collection (for example, pollinator counts) and reflection tasks that connect in-game concepts with real environmental monitoring, thus extending gameplay into tangible classroom and community projects.

CS elements are presented as guided, teacher-facilitated extensions of gameplay, where students’ observations and data contribute to local sustainability efforts, aligning the game’s learning objectives with authentic CS-based methodologies.

In addition to these features, GameOn! offers numerous opportunities for diverse teaching approaches and supports a wide range of classroom and extracurricular activities. The bonus level, called the Tree Temple (which is shared between the three main pathways of the game), invites students to collaborate within a sandbox environment where they can re-elaborate on what they have discovered throughout the game. In this shared digital space, learners can upload images, build structures, and create new elements that represent the concepts, stories, and ideas they have encountered. These artifacts are preserved over time, allowing students to return to the Tree Temple with their teachers or peers to revisit and reflect on what they built, and consequently, on what they learned. This ongoing engagement helps consolidate understanding by transforming abstract notions into tangible, shared artifacts within the GameOn! MEE world. The Tree Temple is a fantasy-inspired setting designed to celebrate nature (see Figure 3d).

5.2. Test Event Method

5.2.1. Demographics of Participants

To evaluate GameOn!, we conducted guided and structured playtest sessions in three primary schools, involving 100 students aged six to eleven. The distribution of student ages across the participating schools, Scuola primaria Carducci, Scuola primaria Don Baronio, and Scuola primaria Aurelio Saffi, is as follows: Scuola primaria Carducci has 27 students aged 8 and 2 students aged 9; Scuola primaria Don Baronio includes 33 students aged 9 and 5 students aged 10; Scuola primaria Aurelio Saffi consists of 1 student aged 9, 28 students aged 10, and 4 students aged 11. In total, the event involved 27 students aged 8, 36 students aged 9, 33 students aged 10, and 4 students aged 11 across all three schools (see

Table 1. Distribution of students per age and per school.

School	Age 8	Age 9	Age 10	Age 11
Scuola primaria Carducci	27	2	0	0
Scuola primaria Don Baronio	0	33	5	0
Scuola primaria Aurelio Saffi	0	1	28	4
Total per Age	27	36	33	4
Grand Total	100

).

5.2.2. Playtest Sessions

Each session followed a standardized 40-min structure in a classroom equipped with laptops. Students were paired, alternating between player and observer roles every 10 min. The facilitator (the paper’s author) introduced the game using an Interactive Whiteboard (IWB) in the first 20 min, allowing the students to play while following their instructions to get used to the basic commands and the overall gameplay loop, followed by a free exploration phase.

After each session, students completed a brief survey and participated in open discussions, providing feedback on engagement, difficulty, and perceived learning outcomes. In addition to these surveys, systematic classroom observations and teacher feedback were collected to capture children’s engagement, task comprehension, and interactions with peers and facilitators. This combination of quantitative and qualitative data allowed us to evaluate both measurable outcomes and nuanced classroom dynamics, while keeping methods age-appropriate and aligned with research-based guidelines for studying children (Hill et al., 1996; Punch, 2002).

Conversely, one test session was conducted as an exploratory unguided play session, using a different methodological setup to examine how GameOn! was experienced in the absence of structured facilitation. In this session, students engaged in unstructured free play and exploration of the GameOn! world without guidance from the facilitator. The same duration and technical setup were maintained, and students completed the same post-session survey.

This condition was not intended for formal comparative or statistical analysis, given the limited number of participants and the exploratory nature of the session. Instead, it was used to capture unfiltered patterns of interaction, identify potential usability or comprehension issues, and highlight differences in engagement that might emerge when the serious game is experienced without instructional mediation. Accordingly, the study should be interpreted primarily as an exploratory mixed-method evaluation of classroom engagement, usability, and perceived learning experiences rather than as a controlled assessment of learning effectiveness.

5.3. Data Analysis

Data analysis focused on integrating multiple sources of evidence to understand children’s experiences with GameOn!. Quantitative survey (see Appendix A) responses were summarized to identify overall patterns, while qualitative feedback and structured observations, guided by an observation protocol (see Appendix B), provided contextual insights into engagement, learning, and interaction. This approach allowed triangulation of data to support a nuanced interpretation of the game’s educational impact, with findings informing potential updates while remaining appropriate for the participants’ age.

5.3.1. Quantitative Data

The evaluation questionnaire (see Appendix A) was developed to gather feedback from children aged 6 to 11 on their experience during the GameOn! test event. Items were designed to be short, clear, and age-appropriate, allowing children to respond easily with minimal adult guidance. The questionnaire includes both closed-ended and open-ended items to capture quantitative ratings (e.g., enjoyment, difficulty, perceived learning) and qualitative feedback (e.g., favorite aspects, suggestions for improvement).

The design of the questionnaire was informed by established child-centered evaluation methods, particularly the Fun Toolkit (Read & MacFarlane, 2006), which emphasizes simplicity and visual clarity when working with young participants. Elements of broader game evaluation inspired by the Game Experience Questionnaire (IJsselsteijn et al., 2013) also guided the inclusion of questions about enjoyment, ease of use, and learning.

Quantitative survey data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (Boone & Boone, 2012) to provide an overview of participant responses across dimensions such as engagement, usability, and perceived educational value. In addition, inferential analyses were conducted to explore potential differences related to age and nationality. Perceived ease of play was measured using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = complicated, 5 = easy), while the need for help during gameplay was treated as a binary variable (yes/no).

Participants were grouped by age to examine developmental differences, and by nationality to assess whether cultural background influenced the gameplay experience. Due to the heterogeneity and limited size of individual nationality groups, nationality was coded into two categories: Italian and non-Italian. Differences in perceived ease of play across age groups were analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), while associations between age or nationality and the need for help were examined using chi-square tests of independence. An independent-samples t-test was used to compare perceived ease of play between Italian and non-Italian participants.

All statistical analyses were conducted using a significance threshold of $\alpha$ = 0.05.

The open-ended questions have been taken into account and treated as qualitative data.

5.3.2. Qualitative Data

Qualitative data were collected through a combination of open-ended questions and structured classroom observations to capture children’s experiences, perceptions, and engagement with GameOn!. Given the participants’ age range (8–11 years), responses were typically brief and concrete (e.g., “I liked the animals,” “It was fun,” “Make more levels”), limiting the applicability of formal thematic analysis. Therefore, a descriptive analytic approach was adopted, focusing on identifying recurring patterns, notable behaviors, and illustrative examples that complemented the quantitative findings.

Verbal feedback was systematically collected from students during post-session discussions, while teachers provided reflective insights on student engagement, learning, and classroom dynamics. Simultaneously, the members of the research team maintained structured observation notes according to the pre-defined observation protocol (see Appendix B), which captured key dimensions including:

• Comprehension of gameplay mechanics;
• Task engagement and persistence;
• Interaction with peers;
• Responsiveness to guidance and scaffolding.

Observational data were analyzed iteratively through repeated comparison across sessions and age groups, highlighting common behaviors and responses, as well as exceptional cases that provided deeper insight into the gameplay experience. This integration of survey responses, teacher feedback, and systematic observations ensured triangulation of data sources, enhancing validity and providing a more nuanced understanding of children’s interactions with GameOn!.

This approach was established to comply with methodological recommendations for research with children (Hill et al., 1996), emphasizing flexible and age-appropriate analytic strategies that account for their typically literal and concise communication (Punch, 2002), which would render it difficult to gain insights into more subtle aspects of their experiences in the test. Furthermore, the structured facilitation and guided play design allowed observation of authentic engagement and learning behaviors, supporting prior evidence that guided play fosters motivation, problem-solving, and collaborative skills in young learners (Weisberg et al., 2013). By combining descriptive survey analysis with structured observation, the study captures both subjective experiences and classroom interaction patterns, providing a comprehensive view of the educational impact of GameOn! while maintaining methodological rigor appropriate for the age group.

6. Results

In this section, we present the data gathered from the surveys answered by the kids who took part in the test event in the three primary schools (Scuola primaria Carducci, Scuola primaria Don Baronio, and Scuola primaria Aurelio Sffi). We then proceed to present the qualitative observations gathered during the test events.

6.1. Questionnaires Results

6.1.1. Enjoyment

First, we inquired about users’ enjoyment level while testing the game. Hence, in response to the survey question “How much did you enjoy playing this game?”, students could choose between the following answers: “Very much”, “Just a little bit”, and “I didn’t like it at all”. Among the 100 users, 95 answered “Very much”, 5 answered “Just a little bit”, and none answered “I didn’t like it at all” (see Figure 4).

6.1.2. Learning

Second, the educational impact of GameOn! was investigated by asking the question “Did you learn anything new or interesting by playing the game?” which could be answered with a “Yes” or “No”. In total, 89 responded “Yes”, 10 “No”, and only one added a custom response stating “So and so” (see Figure 5).

6.1.3. Difficulty

Third, we aimed to assess how easily users could start playing the game. To this end, we asked, “How easy was it to play?” Participants responded using a Likert scale (Joshi et al., 2015), ranging from 1 (very difficult) to 5 (very easy). The distribution of responses was as follows: 2 respondents selected 1, 7 selected 2, 13 selected 3, 31 selected 4, and 47 selected 5 (see Figure 6). Responses to this item yielded a mean score of M = 4.14 (SD = 1.02), indicating that most students found the game easy to use. These values complement the frequency distribution shown in Figure 6, confirming that perceived usability was high across the sample.

6.1.4. Assistance During Gameplay

Fourth, to better understand the level of facilitation required in a classroom setting, we asked participants, “Did you need help from anyone to play?” The possible responses were “Yes” or “No.” A total of 61 students answered “No,” while the remaining 39 responded “Yes.” (see Figure 7).

To complement these quantitative findings, qualitative observations and teacher feedback were collected during the sessions. Facilitators led a plenary discussion, allowing students to share their feedback openly and to assess whether they learned about the topics treated during the test event. These qualitative insights are summarized in the next paragraph with the observations.

6.1.5. Age and Nationality

To further explore factors influencing perceived ease of play and independent interaction, we analyzed the data by age and nationality. Due to the small number of 11-year-old participants (n = 4), ages 10 and 11 were combined into a single group for inferential analyses. Perceived ease of play did not differ significantly across age groups (8, 9, 10+ years), with mean scores of M₈ = 3.96, M₉ = 4.22, and M₁₀₊ = 4.22. A one-way ANOVA confirmed that these differences were not statistically significant, F(2,96) = 0.55, p = 0.58. In contrast, a chi-square test revealed a significant association between age and the need for help, ${\chi }^2$(2) = 14.02, p < 0.01, indicating that younger participants, particularly 8-year-olds, required assistance more frequently than older participants (see Figure 6 and Figure 7).

Nationality was coded into two categories: Italian and non-Italian, due to the heterogeneity of individual nationalities. Italian and non-Italian participants reported virtually identical perceived ease-of-play scores (M_Italian = 4.14, M_Non-Italian = 4.13), and an independent-samples t-test confirmed no significant difference, t(28.2) = 0.04, p = 0.97. Similarly, a chi-square test showed no significant association between nationality and the need for help, ${\chi }^2$(1) = 1.52, p = 0.22. These findings suggest that cultural background did not influence either subjective ease or autonomy, whereas age was a significant predictor of help-seeking behavior.

6.2. Observations During the Test Event

Overall, the observations reinforced our confidence in GameOn!’s potential to teach socially relevant topics in public schools effectively.

6.2.1. Familiarity with MEE

Specifically, we observed varying levels of familiarity and engagement with MEE. While some children were already familiar with its mechanics, others had little prior experience, yet adapted quickly, demonstrating that novices can effectively participate alongside their classmates. Moreover, most children enjoyed the game, although some faced challenges with certain aspects, such as climbing stairs and following the designated route. However, nearly all quickly grasped key concepts, including inventory management and task completion within the given time. Nonetheless, a technical issue consistently hindered the gameplay experience, as the majority of the kids are not used to play or use in general mouse and keyboard (M&K).

6.2.2. Engagement & Adaptation

We compared the observations made during the two play modalities, and most notably, a drastic change in the level of engagement was observed. Structured and guided play significantly increased engagement and task comprehension by providing clearer direction, minimizing confusion, and reducing boredom. Structured facilitation appeared to positively influence engagement. During guided phases, students reacted enthusiastically to clearly defined objectives, as reflected in comments such as “what do we have to do next?” and “we finished [the assignment]!”. Observers noted that turning waiting moments into shared classroom actions—such as raising hands upon completing a task—transformed downtime into a motivating group activity. Even the teachers recognized that with the support of a facilitator, the classroom seemed to enjoy the experience more while keeping a higher level of attention, overall improving their learning during the activity: “They [the kids] need guidance and clear objectives, otherwise we lose their attention. At this age, if you ask them to do something, they get enthusiastic and try their best to succeed” (Scuola primaria Carducci’s teacher).

6.2.3. Facilitation Effects

Additionally, the informal feedback from teachers highlighted GameOn!’s potential to leverage game mechanics to spark interest in educational topics: “the majority of the kids already know Minecraft, so for them is fun to engage with it in school and with their friends” (Scuola primaria Aurelio Saffi’s teacher). Several educators even requested further appointments or expressed interest in integrating the game into their lessons upon its release.

6.2.4. Teacher Feedback

Finally, during the concluding discussion, the children were asked about various concepts that the game aimed to convey through its gameplay. Although the questions were directed at the class as a whole, the children frequently responded in unison and, most importantly, provided correct answers. Overall, these findings suggest that GameOn! successfully conveys the intended concepts and supports both engagement and comprehension of educational content among primary school students.

6.2.5. School and Age Differences

Qualitative observations revealed consistent patterns of engagement across the three schools, alongside age-related differences in attention, interaction, and gameplay behaviors.

Across all schools, students showed high engagement during structured and guided gameplay, particularly when objectives were clearly stated and supported through narration. In contrast, moments of waiting or uncertainty increased the likelihood of distraction, especially when students progressed through levels at different speeds.

At Scuola primaria Aurelio Sffi (10–11 years old), students demonstrated sustained attention and autonomy during guided gameplay. Exploration, building, and interaction with multiple worlds were the most frequently mentioned elements, while competitive aspects were rarely emphasized. Turn-taking between player and observer roles was handled cooperatively, with only isolated instances of reluctance. Students familiar with Minecraft were more verbally active and enthusiastic, occasionally requiring moderation to ensure balanced participation. Difficulties with mouse-and-keyboard controls were present but manageable. Teachers reported that facilitated gameplay improved attention, enjoyment, and recall of educational content.

At Scuola primaria Don Baronio (9–10 years old), students approached the game with curiosity and enthusiasm, particularly toward animals, houses, and farming activities. Attention levels were generally high but less stable than in older students, making clear, concrete tasks especially effective. Motor difficulties with mouse and keyboard were more pronounced, and turn-taking required explicit reminders. Emotional engagement with animals and planting mechanics supported spontaneous discussions related to care and sustainability. Teachers emphasized the game’s motivational value, particularly for students less engaged by traditional activities, while stressing the importance of adult mediation.

At Scuola primaria Carducci (8–9 years old), students expressed broad enthusiasm, often describing the game as enjoyable in its entirety. Exploration dominated interaction patterns, with attention fluctuating in the absence of continuous guidance. Animals again played a central role in sustaining interest. This group experienced the greatest difficulty with controls and required frequent one-to-one support during initial gameplay. Peer learning emerged spontaneously, with students assisting one another. When activities were framed as collective missions rather than free exploration, focus and coherence improved. Teachers noted increased verbal participation and highlighted the need for short, well-paced sessions and strong facilitation.

Across all schools, hardware usability. Specifically, mouse-and-keyboard interaction emerged as a recurring challenge, particularly among younger students accustomed to touchscreen devices. Teachers consistently expressed interest in adopting GameOn! in their teaching practice, emphasizing that facilitation was essential to maintain engagement and align gameplay with educational objectives.

7. Discussion

While the results demonstrate strong enjoyment and promising learning outcomes, their broader significance becomes clearer when examined in relation to prior research and established theoretical frameworks. The discussion below explores how GameOn! advances existing understandings of serious games and highlights its potential to bridge classroom learning with real-world sustainability practices.

7.1. Engagement and Flow in Game-Based Sustainability Learning

Our findings confirm earlier surveys of sustainability-focused serious games (Katsaliaki & Mustafee, 2012; Mortara et al., 2014), which highlight the ability of interactive play to simplify complex ecological concepts. However, unlike prior examples that often remain conceptual or simulation-driven, GameOn! embeds these lessons in the familiar environment of Minecraft, thereby reducing entry barriers for young learners.

Building on this distinction, student responses suggest promising engagement with the approach. The data indicate strong positive feedback, with 95 out of 100 students self-reporting that they enjoyed playing GameOn! “Very much.” This high level of enjoyment not only aligns with Csikszentmihalyi’s Flow Theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Csikzentimihalyi, 1975; Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002), where optimal challenge keeps learners deeply engaged, but also resonates with Papert’s Constructionism (Papert, 1980). According to Papert, learning is most effective when students actively construct knowledge through exploration and tangible experiences (Papert, 1993). GameOn! provides such an environment, enabling young learners to engage in hands-on, creative processes that reinforce both interest and involvement.

However, these positive responses should be interpreted cautiously, as they may partially reflect the novelty of engaging with Minecraft-based activities in the classroom and students’ prior familiarity with the platform. In addition, observations across sessions indicated that structured facilitation and guided play strongly influenced sustained attention, task comprehension, and classroom engagement, particularly among younger learners.

7.2. Extending Game-Based Learning Through Citizen Science

While these results highlight the motivational aspects of the game, they also point toward its broader educational potential when interpreted through a CS perspective. Prior uses of Minecraft Education Edition have introduced sustainability-related topics such as renewable energy or urban ecology, largely within structured, in-class learning settings (Kersánszki et al., 2023; Occhioni et al., 2021). In contrast, CS offers a complementary pedagogical framework that emphasizes learner agency, authentic inquiry, and the connection between scientific knowledge and civic participation. From this perspective, CS informs the design orientation of GameOn! by suggesting pathways through which game-based learning can be conceptually extended beyond the classroom toward real-world sustainability engagement.

From a theoretical and empirical standpoint, CS-based educational approaches have been shown to empower students to actively participate in scientific practices and contribute meaningfully to real-world projects, such as monitoring local ecosystems, tracking wildlife populations, or gathering data on air and water quality. Through these hands-on experiences, children develop critical thinking skills (Panizo-Lledot et al., 2022), learn the scientific method (Bile, 2022; Ekaputra et al., 2013; Nebel et al., 2016; Nkadimeng & Ankiewicz, 2022; Pusey & Pusey, 2015), and gain a deeper understanding of environmental issues and their societal impacts (Opmeer et al., 2018). Moreover, engaging in CS encourages collaboration, communication, and empathy as students work together to address pressing challenges facing their communities (Ceccarini et al., 2023). This hands-on learning fosters a sense of responsibility toward their community and encourages students to think critically about their role in addressing these issues (Opmeer et al., 2018; Panizo-Lledot et al., 2022).

However, integrating CS activities into formal education also presents several challenges. Prior research highlights concerns related to participants’ scientific literacy, the accuracy of data collection, and potential reporting biases, such as over-reporting or under-reporting specific phenomena (Julia Kelemen-Finan & Winter, 2018; Roche et al., 2020; Shah & Martinez, 2016; Turrini et al., 2018). Sustaining engagement over time represents an additional challenge, as many CS initiatives require long-term participation that can be difficult to accommodate within school schedules constrained by limited time and resources. One possible response is the design of CS-inspired activities that simulate authentic scientific experiences while remaining feasible within shorter, structured educational interventions. Despite these challenges, the literature consistently emphasizes the value of engaging young learners in CS for promoting active citizenship, environmental stewardship, and community involvement (Ballard et al., 2017).

Lastly, the integration of CS elements further strengthens the game’s educational value, as it encourages students to apply their digital learning to real-world environmental initiatives, bridging the gap between virtual experiences and active participation in positive environmental and sustainable behaviors (Adamou et al., 2021; Hadjichambi et al., 2023).

Within the scope of the present study, the implementation of extended out-of-class CS activities was intentionally limited due to the structure and time constraints of school-based playtesting sessions. Accordingly, CS should be understood here primarily as a design-oriented and pedagogical framework, rather than as a fully deployed participatory research intervention.

7.3. From In-Game Experience to Real-World Reflection

This connection between gameplay and lived experience became especially evident in our test events. Consistent with findings that CS-based activities foster student agency and deeper engagement with the scientific method (Ballard et al., 2017; Pizzolato & Tsuji, 2022), children not only completed in-game sustainability challenges but also translated them into personal reflections. When exploring themes such as animal preservation, students shared stories like: “I once saw a squirrel and they get scared, so we had to be silent not to bother them” (Scuola primaria Don Baronio’s student 1), or “in the mountains there are wolves because it’s their house” (Scuola primaria Don Baronio’s student 2). Others recalled caring for animals directly: “once we found a small bird that hurt its wing, so with the teacher, we cared for it, and then it flew away” (Scuola primaria Don Baronio’s student 3). These statements illustrate how children internalized and re-expressed the educational content of GameOn! by linking gameplay with everyday observations.

7.4. Learning Outcomes and Guided Play

The connection between play and learning was also reflected in students’ evaluations. Eighty-nine participants reported learning something new or interesting during the events, indicating both cognitive and affective engagement. In line with Self-Determination Theory (Deci et al., 2017), these outcomes suggest that the game supported autonomy and competence, as students quickly mastered new mechanics, embraced challenges, and expressed pride in their achievements. Even the small number of students who reported no learning benefits underscores the overall balance of fun and education in GameOn!, highlighting its potential to foster sustainability literacy and civic-oriented thinking.

Qualitative observations revealed age-related differences in how students engaged with GameOn!, rather than differences attributable to school context. Older students demonstrated greater autonomy, sustained attention, and tolerance for structured gameplay, while younger students required more frequent guidance, shorter tasks, and explicit framing to maintain focus. Engagement themes also shifted developmentally, from affective and sensory elements (e.g., animals, exploration) in younger classes to exploratory and constructive activities (e.g., building and world design) in older ones. These patterns suggest that the effectiveness of GameOn! is closely linked to age-appropriate facilitation strategies rather than to institutional or contextual factors.

Finally, qualitative feedback from open-ended questions and plenary discussions revealed that a guided play approach was more effective than independent exploration. Educators and students reported that clear instructions reduced confusion and maintained focus, a finding consistent with digital game-based learning research (Prensky, 2003). Moreover, in line with Papert’s Constructionism, the guided approach facilitates an environment where learners actively construct their understanding through interactive, meaningful experiences rather than passively receiving information (Papert, 1980). These findings suggest that students engaged with and reflected upon the educational content delivered through GameOn!, as supported by both post-activity reflections and behavioral observations during gameplay. This structured, hands-on approach appears to enhance engagement while fostering a collaborative and reflective learning environment that supports the dual goals of education and entertainment inherent in serious games.

7.5. Age and Nationality Effects on Gameplay Experience

The quantitative analyses further support and clarify patterns observed during classroom playtesting. Perceived ease of play remained consistently high across age groups, with no statistically significant differences between younger and older participants. However, age emerged as a meaningful factor in relation to autonomy: younger students, particularly 8-year-olds, required assistance more frequently than their older peers. This finding aligns closely with observational data, which showed shorter attention spans, greater motor difficulty with mouse-and-keyboard controls, and a stronger need for structured guidance among younger participants. In contrast, older students demonstrated greater independence, sustained attention, and tolerance for task sequencing, particularly when gameplay was framed through missions or narrative goals.

Nationality, by contrast, did not significantly affect either perceived ease of play or the likelihood of requiring assistance. Italian and non-Italian participants reported comparable experiences in terms of usability, suggesting that the core mechanics and visual design of GameOn! are broadly accessible across cultural backgrounds. Observationally, students with limited Italian proficiency were often able to compensate through visual cues, imitation, and peer support, enabling them to participate in gameplay even when linguistic comprehension was partial.

Nonetheless, qualitative data also reveal important boundary conditions to this apparent inclusivity. A notable case involved a 9-year-old Chinese student who rated the game as easy to play but reported learning nothing new and expressed frustration with in-game dialogue, stating that he “did not like to talk.” During the observation of the event was noted that the student had very limited comprehension of both Italian and English; as a result, he followed gameplay actions procedurally when guided and later engaged in free exploration without meaningful interaction with narrative or educational content. While peer support enabled surface-level participation, the learning objectives were largely inaccessible due to the language barrier. This case illustrates how usability and learnability may diverge from educational effectiveness when linguistic accessibility is not ensured.

Taken together, these findings suggest that differences in gameplay experience are driven primarily by developmental factors rather than nationality per se, but that linguistic accessibility remains a critical mediator of learning outcomes. Age-appropriate scaffolding, narrative framing, and teacher facilitation were consistently effective in supporting engagement and comprehension, whereas limited language proficiency posed challenges that cannot be fully addressed through gameplay mechanics alone.

This case underscores the growing need to support students and teachers in increasingly multicultural and multilingual classroom settings. As one teacher remarked during the playtest, “It is becoming harder to ensure that all students can fully participate and understand the lessons. At times, you must decide to leave someone behind; you cannot stop the whole class” (Scuola primaria Carducci’s teacher). Such observations highlight the practical challenges of implementing educational games in culturally diverse classrooms and emphasize the importance of designing inclusive learning experiences that accommodate linguistic and cultural diversity.

7.6. Usability Challenges and Design Implications

Beyond overall enjoyment and learning outcomes, the evaluation of gameplay ease, combined with our observations, revealed two distinct categories of difficulty that provide additional insight into the relationship between technological familiarity and learning.

The first concerned in-game challenges. While 78 out of 100 students rated the game as easy to play (scoring between 4 and 5 on the Likert scale), 22 students, 2 of whom found it particularly challenging, indicated difficulties with specific tasks, such as navigating stairs and barriers, managing the inventory, and identifying the correct route to complete objectives. Although these issues did not prevent progression, they occasionally slowed gameplay and created moments of frustration, especially for less experienced players. The feedback gathered during the test events has been translated into game changes for GameOn! version 2.0, improving different elements of game design to make the game easier to navigate, while keeping it interesting, also for experienced players.

The second category of difficulty was linked to hardware and interface familiarity. Among the 22 students who reported challenges, several encountered technical barriers arising from a generational technological gap. Most children had limited or no prior experience using a mouse and keyboard (M&K) to play, as they are more accustomed to mobile devices, tablets, or gaming consoles. While many quickly adapted, others struggled with basic controls such as movement and camera orientation, and a few even attempted to interact directly with the monitor as if it were a touch screen, exemplified by a Scuola primaria Aurelio Saffi’ student who remarked, “usually I do it like this”, while moving their finger across the screen. This unanticipated usability barrier underscores the need to consider the evolving relationship between younger generations and hardware interfaces and highlights the importance of scaffolding gameplay through tutorials that introduce unfamiliar tools or, when possible, provide access to technologies with which students are already comfortable. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 2014) offers a useful perspective here: by refining the game based on concrete experiences and reflective observations, developers can ensure that each element of gameplay contributes effectively to the learning cycle. In its final version, GameOn! reflects this approach by presenting students with refined activities and relatable, concrete tasks such as picking up trash, taking pictures, helping others, planting seeds for vegetables, or saving energy by turning off lights, which guide them in both sustainability concepts and the gradual mastery of new controls. Complementing these design changes, 39 out of 100 students required assistance during gameplay, particularly among younger participants aged 8 to 9, which further emphasizes the importance of structured guidance. This need for facilitation echoes Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978) and the work of Bellotti et al. (Bellotti et al., 2013), which by their own words “achieving more ambitious learning goals seems to require studying new types of games able to foster more accurate reasoning and reflection, stimulated through proper teacher guidance, allowing the player to efficiently structure the knowledge space”, which stresses the value of scaffolding and social interaction in learning. Minecraft Education Edition supports this process by providing a “library” of different worlds and, most importantly, a “tutorial world” that scaffolds both students’ and teachers’ understanding, easing them into more complex challenges and enhancing the overall classroom experience.

Overall, the data suggest that reimagining environmental sustainability education through CS-inspired digital tools can be both beneficial and effective. This approach aligns with the principles of ELT and Constructionism, both of which emphasize that knowledge is actively constructed rather than passively received. A compelling example is GameOn!, which integrates MEE’s interactive environment as a serious game with hands-on activities inspired by research experiments from CS initiatives. By engaging students in tasks requiring exploration, problem-solving, and creative expression, GameOn! embodies Kolb’s (Kolb, 2014) notion of learning through direct experience and Papert’s (Papert, 1980) call for active knowledge construction. This approach not only fosters deeper conceptual understanding and retention but also encourages students to become co-creators of their educational journey, thereby bridging theoretical constructs with real-world applications and reinforcing a commitment to sustainable, civic-minded learning. Overall, GameOn! received positive feedback through the survey, and the observed discussions with the classrooms demonstrated significant potential to drive social change as GameOn! provided an interactive platform for discussing important topics and fostering meaningful student interactions and discussions.

To obtain this, GameOn! was intentionally designed around challenges that students could complete independently, while remaining expandable into deeper educational moments through teacher guidance. This design aligns with research highlighting the importance of facilitation in achieving meaningful learning outcomes in serious games (Bellotti et al., 2013). In addition, the use of immediate rewards for task completion and longer-term progression across modules provided structured feedback and motivation, supporting sustained engagement without relying solely on uninterrupted flow states (Tarigan et al., 2025).

7.7. Positioning GameOn! Within Digital Pedagogy and Participatory Gaming

Together, these findings position GameOn! as more than a single serious game; they illustrate how digital environments can support CS and civic-oriented learning within sustainability education. This contribution can also be situated within the broader discourse of digital pedagogy.

In consonance with recent frameworks in digital pedagogy that emphasize effective sustainability education should not only convey knowledge but also leverage technology to promote active engagement In their framework Digital Pedagogy for Sustainable Education Transformation (DP4SET), Huang (Huang et al., 2024) argues that digital pedagogy leverages technology to promote active engagement, facilitate deep learning, and emphasize digital literacy and competence. It also enables self-directed and collaborative learning, utilizes digital resources, and supports both online and hybrid modes of education. GameOn! contributes within this pedagogical perspective by integrating an accessible, game-based digital environment that fosters self-directed exploration, collaborative problem-solving, and critical reflection on sustainability issues. Its structured tasks and teacher-facilitated activities reflect the core aims of digital pedagogy: to empower learners as active participants in constructing knowledge while building the digital competencies necessary for sustainable citizenship.

To situate these findings within digital pedagogy, engagement must be understood as a pedagogically mediated process rather than a purely technological outcome. In classroom-based game learning, factors such as pacing, facilitation, and interface familiarity play a central role in shaping students’ agency and participation. Consequently, the effectiveness of participatory and civic-oriented digital games depends not only on their design, but also on how engagement is scaffolded during classroom enactment.

From a theoretical perspective, these findings nuance the application of Flow theory in classroom-based game learning. While high enjoyment and engagement suggest favorable conditions for flow, observations indicate that uninterrupted flow states were fragile and highly dependent on facilitation, pacing, and interface familiarity. In particular, waiting times, uneven progression, and difficulties with mouse–keyboard interaction disrupted sustained immersion, especially among younger learners. This suggests that in primary school contexts, flow should be understood as a facilitated and socially supported condition rather than an individual, self-sustaining state.

Beyond formal education, integration of CS elements into gaming has also emerged in mainstream commercial titles. A notable example is the Borderlands 3 “Science” minigame,5 which invites players to solve pattern-recognition puzzles representing real biological data, thereby contributing to actual scientific research while playing6. This example illustrates how large-scale entertainment (“triple A”) games can embed authentic scientific engagement within gameplay. Within this broader landscape, GameOn! demonstrates how similar mechanics and participatory approaches can be purposefully adapted for educational contexts, fostering sustainability awareness and scientific literacy among young learners.

In conclusion, these examples highlight that CS-based games are not a niche experiment but part of a larger trend that bridges entertainment and learning. Ultimately, drawing on Jenkins’ notion of participatory culture (Jenkins, 2011), on the work of Ballard et al. (Ballard et al., 2017) and Ceccarini et al. (Ceccarini et al., 2023) on the educational benefits of CS, this convergence of gaming, experiential learning theory, flow, and CS points to an untapped potential for digital platforms in both educational and commercial settings to cultivate scientific literacy and civic responsibility at a global scale.

7.8. Delivery

The implementation of GameOn! in European schools requires a dynamic yet well-planned approach that leverages its versatility across diverse education systems. Designed for pupils aged 6-11, the game can be integrated into civic, environmental, and digital education curricula (Occhioni et al., 2021), or used in workshops, project-based learning, and CS initiatives (Pizzolato & Tsuji, 2022). Its international partnership ensured a design that is pedagogically innovative while remaining culturally adaptable and functional across national contexts.

As such, GameOn! represents a socio-technical system that combines digital infrastructure (MEE), teacher training resources GAME PLATFORM, and collaboratively created content tailored to local contexts. This approach enhances scalability and adaptability across a wide range of educational ecosystems.

Although MEE has already proven effective as a serious game in public schools (Bar-El & E. Ringland, 2020; Bourdeau et al., 2021; Ming, 2020; Slattery et al., 2023a), successful integration depends heavily on teacher onboarding (Cózar-Gutiérrez & Sáez-López, 2016). Here, GameOn! provides support on this matter through the GAME PLATFORM, which offers guidelines, tutorials, lesson plans, educational materials, and technical support. Short training modules and peer-exchange meetings can further equip teachers to align gameplay with instructional objectives. In informal discussions, many educators expressed enthusiasm for new pedagogical approaches and saw potential in GameOn! for engaging younger generations.

Finally, assessment strategies should combine classroom-based formative methods (e.g., observation, discussion) with lightweight in-game activities that monitor student progress. Long-term success will rely on institutional commitment, ongoing refinement, and integration into school digitalization plans. With these supports in place, GameOn! can become a scalable and widely employable tool to advance sustainability awareness throughout the European Union.

7.9. Limitations

While the results of this study provide valuable insights into the potential of GameOn! as a digital tool for sustainability education, several limitations should be acknowledged.

First, the qualitative component of the evaluation was based primarily on children’s brief self-reported responses and verbal feedback from both students and teachers collected through researcher observations, rather than in-depth interviews or standardized pre- and post-assessment instruments. The descriptive approach used to analyze these data provided useful insights into children’s experiences and engagement with the game, but offered limited interpretive depth compared with full thematic analysis. Nonetheless, the qualitative feedback complemented the quantitative findings, which showed consistent trends in engagement and perceived learning, lending credibility to the interpretive value of the observations. Future research should consider employing more structured and systematic qualitative methods, such as guided interviews, focus groups, or extended observations, to capture richer narratives and enhance analytical rigor.

Second, the study involved a relatively small and culturally specific sample drawn from three Italian primary schools, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other contexts or age groups. Although additional validation sessions were conducted within the broader GameOn! project in schools located in the Netherlands, Finland, and Greece, the resulting data were not included in this report because they were collected without direct researcher supervision. The primary objective of those sessions was to gather user feedback to inform the iterative development of the latest version of the game rather than to generate empirical research data.

Third, the exploratory nature and short duration of the intervention did not allow for assessment of long-term learning retention or behavior change related to sustainability practices. Moreover, the study did not include multiple comparison groups or controlled experimental conditions, limiting the possibility of evaluating the educational effectiveness of GameOn!.

Fourth, while Citizen Science informed the design and pedagogical framing of GameOn!, the study did not include the implementation of extended out-of-class or longitudinal CS activities. The evaluation focused on in-class gameplay and facilitated discussions conducted within limited timeframes, which did not allow for the assessment of sustained participation, real-world data collection, or long-term civic engagement outcomes. Consequently, claims regarding the broader impact of CS integration should be interpreted as design-oriented and prospective rather than empirically validated within this study.

Finally, although the mixed-method design generated valuable qualitative insights, formal thematic coding was not conducted. The qualitative data consisted mainly of short, straightforward comments from students and teachers, which were easily interpretable without further categorization. For this reason, we reported the complete quotes directly in the text whenever relevant, rather than applying a separate coding process.

8. Conclusions and Future Work

This study introduced GameOn! as a constructionist, game-based learning environment designed to support the exploration of sustainability concepts in primary school education through guided exploration and reflective play. Grounded in Constructionism, Flow Theory, ELT, and informed by principles from CS, the game was evaluated through classroom-based playtesting using a mixed-methods approach. Results indicate high levels of engagement and enjoyment, alongside evidence of reflective learning connected to students’ real-world environmental experiences. Importantly, findings highlight the central role of structured guidance and facilitation, particularly for younger learners, in transforming playful exploration into meaningful educational outcomes. While CS was not implemented as a full participatory research activity, it meaningfully shaped the game’s pedagogical orientation and design choices, laying the groundwork for deeper civic and environmental engagement in future iterations.

The quantitative and qualitative findings converge in showing that perceived usability and enjoyment were consistently high across the sample, whereas autonomy during gameplay varied primarily as a function of age rather than cultural background. Younger students required more frequent assistance, confirming the need for age-appropriate scaffolding and mediated interaction. At the same time, nationality did not emerge as a significant predictor of ease of play or help-seeking behavior, suggesting that the core mechanics of GameOn! are broadly accessible within heterogeneous classroom contexts. However, qualitative observations revealed that linguistic proficiency plays a critical mediating role in learning: while visual and interactive elements enabled participation, limited language comprehension constrained deeper engagement with narrative content and learning objectives. These findings caution against equating accessibility with inclusivity and underscore the importance of considering language as a key dimension in educational game design.

Building on these insights, the transition to GameOn! v.2 represents a pivotal step in the project’s evolution. Future work will extend data collection across a wider range of primary school contexts to further examine the game’s potential to foster environmental awareness, scientific curiosity, and civic engagement through CS-inspired practices. Planned activities include the design of hybrid interventions that connect in-game experiences with concrete, real-world environmental actions, thereby strengthening the experiential and participatory dimensions of learning.

Guided by the integrated theoretical framework of Constructionism, ELT, and CS, subsequent research phases will investigate how young learners understand, appropriate, and enact CS concepts over time. These insights will inform iterative refinements of GameOn!, supporting a balance between open-ended exploration and pedagogically meaningful structure. Iterative development will continue to be informed by empirical evidence and close collaboration with educators, ensuring alignment with classroom realities, curricular constraints, and students’ developmental needs.

Finally, the observations related to linguistic accessibility point toward important directions for future research and design. As classrooms become increasingly multicultural and multilingual, educational games such as GameOn! would benefit from the integration of multilingual dialogue options, audio-supported or icon-based instructions, and adaptive scaffolding mechanisms that reduce reliance on written language. Future studies should also examine how language-aware facilitation strategies and peer-mediated support can be systematically incorporated into game-based learning environments, ensuring that learners with limited proficiency in the instructional language are supported without being marginalized.

At present, GameOn! is available in English, Italian, Dutch, Greek, and Finnish. Moreover, the game can be freely localized into additional languages without requiring programming skills, encouraging adaptation and dissemination across diverse educational and cultural contexts. In this sense, GameOn! contributes not only as a learning tool but also as a flexible platform for exploring inclusive, constructionist, and CS-informed approaches to sustainability education in primary schools.