Relationships Between Critical Thinking Dispositions, Career Decidedness, and Career Motivation Among Adolescents

Abstract

In an era in which critical thinking is regarded as an essential skill, many students lack a clear understanding of what it entails and how it can be applied to career decision-making; therefore, this study examines the relationship between critical-thinking dispositions, career decidedness, and career motivation among high school students. The research sample consisted of 220 high school students, and data were collected using the Critical Thinking Disposition Scale, the Career Decidedness Scale, and the Situational Motivation Scale. The results indicate a positive correlation between critical-thinking dispositions and external regulation within career motivation. In addition, career decidedness was positively associated with career motivation, particularly with its dimensions of external regulation and amotivation. These findings suggest that aspects of motivation linked to external influences play a role in both critical-thinking dispositions and the level of certainty in career decisions, highlighting the importance of addressing motivational factors in supporting students’ career development.

1. Introduction

Adolescence is a significant developmental stage during which individuals are exposed to multiple demanding challenges, including the formation of personal and professional identitities. During this period, adolescents encounter a range of demands, such as parental expectations, changing labor market conditions, the need for social recognition, and the pursuit of personal satisfaction (E. Jung et al., 2018; Ulrich et al., 2021). One of the key tasks of this stage is career decision-making, which requires the ability to consider one’s interests, abilities, and values, as well as external factors influencing the choice of a future professional trajectory (Verhoeven et al., 2019; Rogers et al., 2018).

The process of career decision-making is often challenging for adolescents and is accompanied by uncertainty. It requires not only orientation within the complex and dynamic labor market environment, but also the ability to critically evaluate available information, distinguish between relevant and misleading sources, and make informed decisions (Fabunmi & Adedayo, 2017; Khan & Rehman, 2018). In this context, critical thinking plays an important role, as it enables individuals to analyze information, consider alternatives, and draw rational conclusions in accordance with their individual predispositions and long-term goals (P. Facione, 2015). It follows that the ability to process information critically may represent an important prerequisite for high-quality career decision-making.

Critical thinking is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct consisting of cognitive and dispositional components. The cognitive component includes abilities such as argument analysis, information evaluation, and conclusion formation, whereas the dispositional component reflects the willingness to actively apply these abilities (Sosu, 2013; Lai, 2011; P. A. Facione, 2000). Dispositional aspects of critical thinking may be particularly important in decision-making situations requiring active cognitive engagement. The development of critical thinking is currently considered essential, especially in environments characterized by information overload and rapidly changing labor market demands (World Economic Forum, 2025). The literature emphasizes that employers increasingly expect young people and graduates to demonstrate critical thinking, reflective problem-solving, and self-regulatory abilities necessary for successful transition into employment (Rowley et al., 2017). Accordingly, critical thinking is associated not only with academic achievement but also with career readiness and professional identity development. However, international assessments indicate that students’ levels of critical thinking remain insufficient (OECD, 2023), which may negatively affect effective decision-making.

Career decision-making, however, is not determined solely by cognitive abilities but also by motivational factors. Career motivation comprises a set of processes that influence the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior in a career context (London, 1983). Self-determination theory distinguishes different forms of motivation are distinguished, ranging from autonomous (e.g., intrinsic motivation and identified regulation) to controlled (external regulation) and including amotivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020; Vallerand et al., 1992). These forms of motivation might differ in the degree of an individual’s internal engagement and may significantly influence their approach to career decision-making, particularly the extent of active information seeking and the willingness to engage in the decision-making process.

Career decidedness is closely related to career motivation and represents an individual’s current degree of decisiveness regarding career choice (Osipow, 1999). Unlike the stable trait of indecisiveness, it is a situationally conditioned construct that may vary depending on circumstances and available information (Germeijs & Verschueren, 2011). A higher level of motivation tends to be associated with greater career decidedness, as motivated individuals are more active in acquiring and processing the information necessary for decision-making. In contrast, amotivation and controlled forms of motivation are more frequently associated with indecisiveness and difficulties in decision-making (Guay et al., 2003; Mbanga et al., 2024a; Paixão & Gamboa, 2017).

The relationships among critical-thinking dispositions, career motivation, and career decidedness may be understood within self-determination theory and social cognitive career theory (Ryan & Deci, 2020; Lent et al., 1994). These frameworks emphasize the role of motivation, self-regulation, and reflective cognitive processes in adaptive career decision-making. Critical-thinking dispositions may facilitate the evaluation of career-related information and consideration of career alternatives (Iqbal et al., 2026), while motivational regulation may influence adolescents’ engagement in career exploration and decision-making activities (Sharapova et al., 2023). Together, these processes may contribute to greater career decidedness and more adaptive career-related behaviors (Chatterjee et al., 2023).

Previous research has shown that higher motivation is associated with greater career exploration and more adaptive decision-making (Guay et al., 2003; Paixão & Gamboa, 2022). Recent findings further indicate that autonomous motivation, self-efficacy, and agency-related resources support adolescents’ career exploration and career commitment during educational transitions (Ahn et al., 2025), whereas lower motivation has been linked to lower career decidedness (Betz & Voyten, 1997). Similarly, career decision-making readiness has been associated with higher self-efficacy, greater career exploration, and lower decision-making difficulties among students (Azhenov et al., 2023).

Critical-thinking dispositions have been linked to reflective judgment, information evaluation, and self-regulation (P. Facione, 2015; Stavropoulou et al., 2025). Motivational factors such as expectancy beliefs and perceived usefulness also significantly predict critical thinking ability (Carreño et al., 2023). Recent studies further suggest that critical thinking may enhance intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, goal orientation, and learning regulation (Huang et al., 2024; Ma & Xu, 2025). Research on adolescents has additionally highlighted the importance of critical thinking for educational aspirations and self-evaluation of academic outcomes (Hanzlová & Kudrnáč, 2024). These findings suggest that adolescents with stronger critical-thinking dispositions and higher career motivation may engage more actively in career exploration and make more reflective and confident career decisions.

However, existing studies have mostly examined these constructs separately or focused primarily on university students. Less attention has been devoted to secondary school students during a developmental period characterized by intensive career exploration and career-related decision-making. Therefore, the present study examines the relationships between critical-thinking dispositions, career motivation, and career decidedness among secondary school students.

To guide this study, the following research questions were formulated:

RQ1: What is the relationship between critical-thinking dispositions and career decidedness among secondary school students?

RQ2: What is the relationship between critical-thinking dispositions and career motivation among secondary school students?

RQ3: What is the relationship between career motivation and career decidedness among secondary school students?

Previous findings have shown that motivation is associated with career exploration, adaptive decision-making, and career decidedness (Betz & Voyten, 1997; Paixão & Gamboa, 2022). Other studies have linked motivational regulation to reflective cognitive functioning and critical thinking (Carreño et al., 2023; Stavropoulou et al., 2025). Based on these findings, critical-thinking dispositions, career motivation, and career decidedness may be expected to be positively associated. Specifically, adolescents with stronger critical-thinking dispositions may engage more actively in evaluating career-related information and demonstrate greater certainty in career decisions. Based on these theoretical assumptions and empirical findings, the following hypotheses were formulated:

H1. 

Critical-thinking dispositions will be positively associated with career decidedness.

H2. 

Critical-thinking dispositions will be positively associated with career motivation.

H3. 

Career decidedness will be positively associated with career motivation.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

The final sample consisted of 220 high school students (119 females, 101 males) aged between 17 and 19 years (M = 17.86, SD = 0.72), recruited from grammar schools (n = 151) and vocational secondary schools (n = 69) in Slovakia. Initially, 248 respondents participated in the study; however, 28 cases were excluded due to incomplete questionnaire responses.

A purposive sampling strategy was employed to target students in the final years of secondary education, as this developmental period represents a critical phase of career decision-making within the Slovak educational system. Specifically, students in the third and fourth years of high school are required to make specific decisions regarding elective subjects, graduation (maturita) examinations, and subsequent educational or occupational pathways, such as applying to universities or entering the labor market. At this stage, career decision-making shifts from hypothetical exploration to more committed and consequential commitments.

This approach is supported by theoretical models of career development (e.g., Super, 1957; Gati & Kulcsár, 2021), which emphasize that the nature and quality of career decision-making are context-dependent and vary across developmental stages. While earlier phases are characterized by exploratory and tentative considerations, the final years of secondary education are typically associated with increased decisional urgency and need for commitment.

The required sample size was determined a priori using a statistical power analysis for correlation. Assuming a medium effect size (r = 0.20), a significance level of α = 0.05, and statistical power of 0.80 (β = 0.20), the minimum required sample size was calculated to be n = 194. Therefore, the final sample (n = 220) exceeded this requirement, ensuring sufficient statistical power to detect significant relationships between the studied variables.

2.2. Measurement Instruments

To collect data on critical-thinking dispositions, we used the Critical Thinking Disposition Scale by Sosu (2013). The questionnaire consists of 11 items measuring criticalthinking dispositions across two domains: reflective skepticism (4 items) and critical openness (7 items). Responses to individual items were rated on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The internal consistency of the questionnaire is acceptable (ω = 0.735; α = 0.730).

Career decidedness was measured using the Career Decidedness Scale (Lounsbury & Gibson, 2011). This is an 8-item questionnaire that measures career decidedness as a unidimensional construct. Responses were rated on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher scores reflect a higher level of the current state of decidedness. The internal consistency of the questionnaire is acceptable (ω = 0.784; α = 0.732).

Student career motivation was measured using the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS; Guay et al., 2000). For the purposes of data collection, a modified version of the scale focusing on career motivation was used (Baňasová & Sollár, 2016). The scale comprises four dimensions: intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation, and amotivation. Each dimension consists of 4 items. Respondents rated their answers on a scale ranging from 1 (does not correspond at all) to 7 (corresponds exactly). The internal consistency of the questionnaire and its individual dimensions is α > 0.70.

The instruments were administered in the Slovak language. In the case of translated measures, items were carefully adapted for the purposes of this study to ensure conceptual equivalence. The internal consistency of all scales was calculated using data from the present research sample.

2.3. Data Collection and Analysis

Data were collected using an online questionnaire administered via Google Forms. The questionnaire was distributed through secondary schools, and participants completed it voluntarily during school hours or on their own time. Prior to participating, respondents were informed about the purpose of the study, the anonymous nature of data collection, and their right to withdraw at any time. Informed consent was obtained from all participants. The survey included standardized instruments measuring critical-thinking dispositions, career decidedness, and career motivation. The internal consistency of the scales was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, with all values exceeding the acceptable threshold of 0.70.

A cross-sectional design was selected because the primary aim of the study was to examine concurrent relationships between variables rather than developmental changes or causal mechanisms. Given the exploratory and correlational nature of the study, correlational analyses were considered appropriate for identifying patterns of association between motivational and cognitive variables related to career decision-making.

Data were analyzed using JASP statistical software (version 0.95.4). Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, skewness, and kurtosis) were calculated for all variables. The assumption of normality was evaluated based on skewness and kurtosis values, which fell within the acceptable range of −1 to +1. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were used because the study aimed to examine linear associations between continuous variables and the data met assumptions of approximate normality. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Given the cross-sectional correlational design of the study, the analyses were limited to assessing associations between variables, and no causal inferences were made.

2.4. Ethical Considerations

All procedures performed in this study were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (both institutional and national) and with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki, as revised in 2000. The study was also approved as part of an ongoing research project (VEGA 1/0336/24: Critical Thinking in Relation to Academic Success and Decision-Making in Specific Areas of Students’ Lives) and also a part of research project (UGA IX/6/2025: Critical thinking in relation to career decidedness and career motivation.) by the ethics committee (UKF/370/2025/191013:024).

3. Results

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the research sample (n = 220).

	CTD	CD	CM	IM	IR	ER	AM
M	44.68	24.32	70.55	21.61	23.53	16.15	9.26
SD	4.94	4.5	7.53	4.06	2.93	4.89	4.15
MIN	30	16	49	10	12	5	4
MAX	53	34	87	28	28	28	22
SKEW	−0.738	0.619	−0.199	−0.69	−0.96	0.022	0.887
KURT	0.593	−0.356	0.493	0.161	0.716	−0.112	0.626

Note. CTD—critical-thinking dispositions, CD—career decidedness, CM—career motivation, IM—intrinsic motivation, IR—identified regulation, ER—external regulation, AM—amotivation, M—mean, SD—standard deviation, MIN—minimum observed value, MAX—maximum observed value, SKEW—skewness coefficient, KURT—kurtosis coefficient.

presents the basic descriptive characteristics of the examined variables, including the mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values, and skewness and kurtosis coefficients. The normality of the data distribution was assessed based on the values of the skewness and kurtosis coefficients, which fall within the interval from −1 to +1. Therefore, Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to analyze the relationships between the variables.

Table 2. Relationships between variables.

	CD	CM	IM	IR	ER	AM
CTD	0.184	0.228	0.072	0.200	0.247 **	0.091
CD	/	0.384 ***	−0.010	0.082	0.256 **	0.362 **

Note. CTD—critical-thinking dispositions, CD—career decidedness, CM—career motivation, IM—intrinsic motivation, IR—identified regulation, ER—external regulation, AM—amotivation; p < 0.01 (**), p < 0.001 (***).

presents the correlational relationships between critical thinking, career decidedness, career motivation, and the individual dimensions of career motivation. The results indicate a weak relationship between critical-thinking dispositions and the external regulation dimension of career motivation (r = 0.247; p < 0.01). A correlation of moderate strength was observed between career decidedness and career motivation (r = 0.384; p < 0.001). Furthermore, a weak positive relationship was found between external regulation and career decidedness (r = 0.256; p < 0.01). A moderate positive correlation was found between career decidedness and amotivation (r = 0.362; p < 0.01). Other relationships between the variables were found to be statistically non-significant.

4. Discussion

From the perspective of social cognitive career theory, critical-thinking dispositions may support the evaluation of career-related information and management of career uncertainty (Lent et al., 1994). Previous research suggests that stronger critical-thinking dispositions contribute to greater adaptability and reflective judgment in academic and professional contexts (Karakuş, 2024). Motivation may also influence adolescents’ engagement in career exploration and decision-making (Paixão & Gamboa, 2022). Higher autonomous motivation has been linked to greater career exploration and decision-making engagement (Ryan & Deci, 2020; Mbanga et al., 2024b). Overall, these findings suggest that adolescent career decision-making depends not only on access to information, but also on the motivational and cognitive processes involved in its interpretation and use.

4.1. Critical-Thinking Dispositions and Career Decidedness

Many studies indicate that critical thinking is a skill or competence that facilitates the decision-making process (Turan et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2015). Therefore, our aim was to determine whether a relationship exists between critical-thinking dispositions and career decidedness. In our study, no relationship was found between critical-thinking dispositions and career decidedness. This result is not consistent with some theoretical assumptions. Alternative explanations suggest that decision-making may also be influenced by additional factors, such as intuitive processes or social influences, which were not measured in this study. It appears that, in the context of decision-making, students more frequently rely on intuitive decision-making styles orheuristics (Gati et al., 2025; Xu, 2023; Greenbank, 2014), or expect that important adults in their lives, such as parents, will make career choices on their behalf (Arslan et al., 2023).

Given the composition of the research sample, it is also necessary to consider the time factor as a potential explanation for the absence of a relationship. As the research sample consisted of secondary school students, predominantly those in their third year, it can be assumed that they are still in the process of career decision-making and that their decisions are not yet fully stabilized (Mbanga et al., 2024b). Consequently, their prospective evaluation of the future may not fully reflect their actual future behavior, as might be the case in the period immediately preceding decisions regarding further education or career choice. In addition, motivational processes during adolescence may change dynamically in relation to developmental and educational transitions (Symonds et al., 2019).

4.2. Critical-Thinking Dispositions and Career Motivation

Based on the theoretical framework outlined in the introduction, we expected a negative relationship between critical-thinking dispositions and external regulation as a dimension of career motivation. However, data analysis revealed a weak positive relationship between the examined variables. This finding partially differs from previous studies emphasizing the stronger role of autonomous motivation in reflective cognitive functioning and critical thinking development (Stavropoulou et al., 2025). Although this finding may seem unexpected, it may reflect more complex underlying processes. One possible explanation inferred from the results is the need to critically evaluate job-related demands. Factors such as parental expectations, salary, and working conditions represent important external motivational influences (Alonderiene & Klimavičiene, 2013). Therefore, it is essential to adequately assess these demands and align them with one’s values, skills, and experiences. In the context of career decision-making, external motivation may be perceived as a legitimate factor in the decision-making process. Thus, the observed relationship may be interpreted as a reflective acceptance of external inputs and their incorporation into the decision-making process.

4.3. Career Motivation and Career Decidedness

Consistent with previous research, the present findings suggest that motivation plays an important role in career exploration and career-related decision-making. Motivation within the process of career decision-making can be considered a variable that fosters curiosity and interest (Blustein, 1988). When students are motivated and curious, they are more active in seeking and processing information about specific occupations. This active approach to information seeking is essential for informed and effective career decision-making. Therefore, higher levels of motivation are associated with more effective information seeking and, consequently, with higher career decidedness (Koyuncuoglu, 2021). Betz and Voyten (1997) found that students with lower levels of motivation demonstrated lower career decidedness. Although the literature does not explicitly identify motivation as a direct antecedent of curiosity, but rather as operating through career adaptability, which includes curiosity, it may be assumed that motivation indirectly contributes to the development of curiosity in the career context.

A surprising finding of the study is the positive relationship between career decidedness and amotivation among students. Most studies report a negative relationship between these variables (J. Y. Jung, 2018; Amaral et al., 2023). Existing research findings indicate that career indecisiveness is perceived as a stressful event that may evoke anxiety (e.g., Creed et al., 2016). During the career decision-making process, students experience negative emotions (e.g., stress and worry), not only due to the need to make a career decision but particularly regarding whether the final decision will be correct and what consequences an unfavorable choice may have (Lipshits-Braziler, 2017). The observed relationship may suggest that career-decided adolescents also experience higher stress, fear of failure, and self-doubt. In our sample, amotivation may therefore reflect a defensive response to these pressures.

4.4. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research

The findings of this study should be interpreted with consideration of several limitations. First, the use of purposive sampling may have limited the variability of the examined relationships and reduced the generalizability of the findings. Furthermore, situational career motivation was assessed prospectively using a hypothetical question (“Why will you work?”), which may have affected measurement accuracy. Participants’ responses may have been influenced by idealized perceptions, current psychological states, or social desirability bias, and therefore may not fully reflect actual career decision-making behavior.

These limitations underscore the importance of employing more diverse and representative samples in future research. Including students from different school types, academic fields, and age groups would enable a broader examination of career decision-making processes and enhance the generalizability of the findings. Future studies should also refine the assessment of career motivation by incorporating contextually grounded or behaviorally oriented measures, as well as research designs capturing motivation in real or anticipated career decision-making situations. Nevertheless, the prospective approach applied in the present study provides valuable insight into students’ attitudes, expectations, and psychological well-being related to future careers.

In addition, the cross-sectional design limits the ability to examine developmental changes in career motivation and decision-making over time. Future studies should therefore employ longitudinal designs to provide a more comprehensive understanding of these processes.

Future studies could also expand the proposed model by incorporating additional cognitive and psychological variables relevant to career decision-making. Particular attention should be devoted to cognitive flexibility, decision-making styles, and intuitive versus rational approaches, as adolescents frequently rely on heuristic strategies. The inclusion of these variables may contribute to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying career decision-making.

The findings also have important theoretical and practical implications. From a theoretical perspective, the results support the assumption that adolescent career decision-making is shaped not only by cognitive processes but also by motivational regulation and reflective engagement with career-related information. Moreover, the study contributes to the integration of self-determination theory and social cognitive career theory by emphasizing the interplay among critical-thinking dispositions, motivation, and career decidedness.

From a practical perspective, the findings suggest that educational and career guidance interventions should focus not only on providing career-related information but also on fostering critical-thinking dispositions, reflective evaluation, and adaptive forms of motivation. Supporting autonomous motivation and reflective career exploration may help adolescents engage more confidently in career decision-making processes. Consequently, schools and career counselors should consider both cognitive and motivational dimensions when supporting students in educational and career planning.

Another important direction for future research involves examining critical thinking within specific career contexts. The absence of a significant relationship between critical-thinking dispositions and career decidedness may indicate that critical thinking does not automatically transfer across domains. Future research should therefore focus on the development and validation of instruments assessing critical thinking directly within career decision-making contexts.

Finally, the inclusion of additional variables, such as career self-efficacy, perceived stress, and tolerance of uncertainty, may contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing career motivation and career decidedness. Furthermore, examining career decidedness as a multidimensional construct may provide deeper insight into various aspects of career indecisiveness.

5. Conclusions

The findings of the study point to complex interrelationships between critical thinking, career decidedness, and career motivation among secondary school students. The observed positive relationship between critical-thinking dispositions and external regulation suggests that students are able to reflectively engage with external inputs when these are aligned with their values and goals. A relationship between career decidedness and career motivation was also identified, supporting the assumption that higher levels of motivation are associated with clearer and more informed decision-making. A surprising finding is the relationship between career decidedness and amotivation, which opens avenues for further research, particularly regarding psychological mechanisms that may influence motivation in the context of decision-making. Overall, the study highlights the importance of supporting critical thinking and motivation as key factors in the formation of career decisions among adolescents.