Evidence for Language Policy in Government Pre-Primary Schools in Nigeria: Cross-Language Transfer and Interdependence

Abstract

This study explores the relationship between and within Hausa and English letter sound knowledge and word decoding skills among children studying in early years settings in northern Nigeria. There is a lack of correlational studies as well as causal evidence in the African context to indicate any transfer of language skills from L1 and L2 and vice versa. Test scores from 851 children studying in 158 government provided pre-primary schools took tests in letter sound (phoneme) and reading (word) decoding skills. Through bivariate correlations and a just-identified feedback path model, the results support Cummins’ interdependence hypothesis. Hausa and English word scores are bidirectionally associated, and the data reveal very strong significant positive correlations between Hausa and English letter sound scores and Hausa and English word scores. With the language policy set to change in Nigeria concerning the use of the language of the immediate community becoming a possible medium of instruction, these results, supporting bidirectionality and linguistic interdependence, provide evidence for the teaching of L1 and L2 in pre-primary settings in northern Nigeria.

1. Introduction

In Nigeria, there is much debate around the language of instruction (LOI) within early grade settings. Nigeria is a linguistically diverse nation, home to over 500 indigenous languages (Obiakor, 2024). The three most prominent heritage languages are Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba, each corresponding to one of the country’s largest ethnic groups. Igbo is predominantly spoken in the southeast, Yoruba in the southwest, and Hausa in the north (Jegede, 2024). It is estimated that 53% of Nigerians speak a form of English which is a co-official language alongside Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba.1 Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba differ significantly in their linguistic structure, tonal qualities and cultural contexts (Igboanusi, 2006). Hausa, a tonal language, spoken by over 63 million people, belongs to the Chadic group of the Afro-Asiatic language family, significantly influenced by Arabic. Yoruba, a tonal language with three distinct tones (high, mid, and low) has over 47 million speakers. Igbo, also part of the Niger–Congo language family, is tonal, with numerous dialects, including Umuahia and Owerri. Spoken by over 46 million people, Igbo grammar and syntax are distinct, with unique verb structures that do not typically accommodate consonant clusters found in languages including English. Currently, all three languages primarily use Latin-based alphabets for formal education and general use. However, Hausa and Yoruba historically were written using Ajami, a form of Arabic script, whilst Igbo utilises Nsibidi ideograms (Heine & Nurse, 2000). When learning to read using phonemes, the main sound differences between Hausa and English come from how each language maps letters to sounds and the kinds of sounds each uses. For example, in Hausa, pitch/tone distinguishes words, so tone marking or awareness is part of decoding. Also, Hausa orthography is more phonemic, making decoding relatively straightforward in comparison to English, with less regular spelling where letters or groups of letters can represent different sounds.

UNESCO has acknowledged the importance of developing early language and literacy skills as a global human rights issue (Finders et al., 2023). In 2022, the Federal Ministry of Education (FME), through the Nigerian Education Research and Development Council (NERDC), approved a new National Language Policy (NLP) which states that the language of instruction will be in Mother Tongue (MT) or Language of the Immediate Community (LIC) from Early Child Care Development Education (ECCDE) to Primary 6, where ECCDE caters for children aged 1–5 years. Supporting L1 instruction in the early years has been found to be beneficial. Pedagogical reasons include that the use of a familiar language allows for active student participation by reducing anxiety and increasing confidence. Using L1 enhances comprehension and can act as a cognitive scaffold. Building rapport and a positive classroom culture between the teacher and students through a more inclusive environment, which is student-centred, can lead to better test performance and school retention rates (de Galbert, 2023; Seid, 2016; World Bank, 2010). English is taught as a school subject from ECCDE to Primary 6 and becomes the language of instruction from the Junior Secondary level. The new system has not yet been implemented owing to challenges around teacher training, curriculum, and developing materials (NERDC, 2022; Obiakor, 2024). The version of the National Policy of Education (NERDC, 2013) that is currently still implemented differs in that English becomes the medium of instruction at an earlier stage—Primary 4.

A unique and deeply complex challenge in the Nigerian context is the sheer number of languages spoken across the country, totalling 500 or more (Trudell et al., 2023). This linguistic diversity raises significant questions about the practicality of implementing mother tongue education nationwide. Most classrooms, especially in urban and semi-urban areas, are multilingual, with children coming from homes that speak different heritage languages. Developing curriculum materials, training teachers, and standardising instruction in hundreds of languages would be a monumental task. Scholars have noted that while mother tongue instruction is widely supported in theory and policy, the absence of a clear, scalable strategy for dealing with Nigeria’s linguistic complexity continues to limit its practical application (Sooter, 2013; Obiakor, 2024; Bamgbose, 2000).

As research shows, the first five years of life are a critical time for children to develop linguistic, cognitive, social, emotional, and regulatory skills, which can predict their later functioning in many domains (Hentges et al., 2021; Bruce & Bell, 2022; Trawick-Smith, 2005; Woolfolk & Perry, 2012). There is a strong link between language acquisition and the amount of linguistic input a child is exposed to in their everyday life during early childhood. Vocabulary knowledge increases alongside the development of abstract language and the strengthening of the ability to structure sentences (Huttenlocher et al., 2002; Finders et al., 2023; Rämä-Ory, 2022). Access to quality pre-primary education can decrease the language acquisition achievement gap between children from lower and higher socioeconomic backgrounds (Rämä-Ory, 2022; Duncan et al., 2023). Research shows that there is an association between language exposure in early childhood education (ECE) settings (typically from birth to eight years old) and children’s future language abilities (Turnbull et al., 2009; Duncan et al., 2023). Language skills are the strongest predictor of outcomes in academic and non-academic domains, including social skills, mathematics, and reading (Pace et al., 2019). Access to good quality pre-primary education is essential for its significant contribution to individual language outcomes (Pace et al., 2019). Owing to the increased neural plasticity in the brain occurring in the first five years of life, children increase their language learning at a rapid rate (Knudsen, 2004). Language development at the age of four is highly predictive of language abilities in adolescence (Bornstein et al., 2014). The setting of school language policies for ECCDE and primary education is therefore one that can be shaped by different stakeholders’ beliefs and attitudes, as well as cultural practices and practical constraints, often causing contention as to the most appropriate way forward.

Using empirical data that looks at decoding reading skills (word) and letter sound knowledge (phoneme), this research is significant in that it sets out to investigate the cross-language transfer of reading skills in early years settings in 158 government pre-primary schools in northern Nigeria. The importance of this study is to consider linguistic interdependence and any bidirectional influences of literacy skills when learning to read in a heritage language and English. It will provide a unique point of reference, enhancing knowledge and understanding around the teaching in early years settings of heritage languages alongside English, with implications for policy.

1.1. Language Learning in Early Years Settings

Children who experience early childhood or pre-primary programmes are more likely than children who have not to remain in school and achieve good results (Trudell et al., 2023; Tang et al., 2023). Research suggests that quality ECE enhances children’s preparedness for formal schooling by fostering early literacy and numeracy skills, critical thinking, and social competence (Britto et al., 2011).

National language policies can be shaped by many stakeholders, not only parents, teachers, and local education authorities, but international donors, including government agencies, private foundations, international organisations, and corporate entities. In linguistically rich environments, such as Nigeria, challenges for language policy implementation and prescription are both linguistic (related to the languages themselves) and sociolinguistic (related to stakeholders’ attitudes and perspectives on the languages) (Trudell et al., 2023, p. 94). Recently, the largest four donors to education in African nations have been USAID, the World Bank, the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO), and the Global Partnership for Education (GPE). Each of these espouses their support for the use of local languages of instruction in early and primary years (World Bank, 2019a, 2019b; DfID, 2018; Global Partnership for Education, 2019). In Rwanda, an early-grade reading project, Literacy, Learning and Language [L3] Initiative, was funded by USAID from 2012 to 2017. The Soma Umenye project (USAID, 2021), costing USD 72 million, extensively developed materials, training, and classroom implementation to support the reading skills in Kinyarwanda, the language spoken by 95% of the Rwandan population (Trudell et al., 2023). The Rwandan government in 2019, irrespective of USAID’s promotion of Kinyarwanda-medium learning, implemented a language policy in schools to make English the sole language of instruction from early years. In Uganda, USAID funded a programme from 2012 to 2017 at the cost of USD 1.9 million, which supported the current national language of instruction policy. The intervention focused on early-grade reading instruction through P3 in 12 minority languages, producing teacher guides, student books, and teacher training. The Ugandan government continues with this language policy in schools today. In Nigeria, USAID committed USD 48.8 million to the Leveraging Education Assistance Resources in Nigeria (LEARN) to Read activity, building on the Northern Education Initiative Plus (NEI Plus). This programme aimed to improve early-grade reading from 2022 to 2027 in heritage languages. USAID and UNICEF are both active in supporting early childhood development (ECD) across Africa, with a shared emphasis on preparing children for formal schooling through language-rich, play-based learning. USAID’s initiatives often target pre-primary and lower primary grades, integrating early literacy and local-language instruction with teacher training and system strengthening. Examples include the Ethiopia Pre-primary in Emergencies project (2024–2029), funded at USD 35 million by USAID and the LEGO Foundation, which delivers mother-tongue, play-based education for crisis-affected children aged 4–6; Rwanda’s Twiyubake Community ECD Centres (2015–2020), which provided Kinyarwanda storytelling, songs, and emergent literacy activities to 3–6 year olds; the Consortium for Pre-Primary Data and Measurement in Africa (2019–present), which improves monitoring of language and literacy outcomes in five African countries; and Uganda’s planned Integrated ECD in Basic Education programme (2024–2029), expected to invest up to USD 45 million in school readiness and home-based language development. UNICEF’s work complements these efforts through national policy support, ECD centre operation, and integrated services that combine education with health, nutrition, and protection. In Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Uganda, UNICEF backs community-based ECD centres and pre-primary programmes that promote early language skills in local languages, strengthen parental engagement, and the smooth transition into Grade 1. Together, these agencies contribute to expanding access to quality early learning, building the foundational literacy and language skills essential for later academic success (Apio et al., 2024; Spier et al., 2021; Raikes et al., 2020).

In Nigerian kindergarten and nursery schools, reading instruction is carried out in both heritage languages (L1) and English (L2); however, this does depend on the school type, location, and whether the educational policy is implemented or not. The currently implemented National Language Policy of Nigeria mandates that early childhood education (ECCDE to Primary 3) should be conducted in the heritage language or the language of the immediate environment, with a gradual transition to English (NERDC, 2013). However, in many cases, English is introduced earlier, alongside the heritage language. Many private nursery schools, especially in urban areas, use English (L2) as the primary medium of instruction from the beginning (Tooley et al., 2005). A survey of 36 nursery and primary schools in Lagos State shows that around 75% use English as the only language of instruction: the remaining 25% use a mixture of English and Yoruba (Ohiri-Aniche, 2016). Parents often prefer English due to its perceived advantages for their child’s future academic and economic success and ability to participate as a global citizen (Bamgbose, 2000; Dixon et al., 2011; Counihan et al., 2022; Humble et al., 2024). In rural areas, children are more likely to learn in the language of the immediate community. Similarly, in the northern parts of the country, where Hausa (L1) dominates as the heritage language, around 85.7% of schools combine Hausa (L1) with English (L2) as languages of instruction (Oluwafemi et al., 2014).

1.2. Cross-Language Transfer in Early Year Settings

This study adopts Cummins’ (1979) hypothesis of cross-language transfer (Interdependence Hypothesis). Unlike the Linguistic Threshold Hypothesis (Cummins, 1976), which suggests a unidirectional transfer from the first language to the second after a minimum proficiency threshold in the latter, Cummins’ framework conceptualises both languages as drawing on shared cognitive and academic proficiencies. This allows for reciprocal transfer, making it especially suitable for contexts of simultaneous bilingualism where both languages develop in tandem, considering early reciprocal transfer. The Transfer Facilitation Model (Koda, 2007) is contingent on structural similarity between languages. The efficiency of transfer depends on the degree of similarity. Cummins’ hypothesis accommodates typologically and phonologically distant language pairs such as Hausa and English (Malah & Rashid, 2015).

Cummins’ hypothesis suggests that there is an interconnectedness between L1 and L2 skills (Cummins, 1981, 1998, 2017). His theory around the development of language and literacy skills hypothesises that children are able to transfer knowledge across languages. Durgunoğlu (2002) also hypothesises that reading processes acquired once in a child’s language development are able to be transferred to another language. Thus, there will be a positive cross-transfer relationship between L1 and L2. There is a common underlying proficiency at the cognitive level, meaning that the languages are connected and not separate (Cummins, 2017). According to Otheguy et al. (2015, 2019), the definition of translanguaging is the use of an entire linguistic repertoire of a speaker. That is, bilingual and multilingual speakers possess a single, unitary linguistic system. Translanguaging encourages teachers and learners to use all their languages for communication, learning, and meaning-making, drawing on their whole linguistic repertoire fluidly and strategically depending on the context. Translanguaging challenges the rigid separation of languages, believing that boundaries between languages are socially imposed and a sociopolitical construct (Wei, 2018).

Studies over the years have shown the relation between L1 and L2 reading skills (Baker et al., 2011; Cummins, 1979; Kim & Piper, 2019; Koda, 2007; Manis et al., 2004; Proctor et al., 2006; Skutnabb-Kangas & Toukomaa, 1976; Wang et al., 2006; Humble et al., 2024). Correlational studies as well as causal evidence indicate the transfer of phonological awareness across languages (Abu-Rabia & Siegel, 2002; Branum-Martin et al., 2012; Patel et al., 2024). Phonological awareness is the ability to recognise and manipulate the sound structures of spoken language, including words, syllables, onsets, and rimes. It plays a crucial role in early reading development, as it helps children understand how sounds relate to letters and words (National Reading Panel, 2000). Skills under phonological awareness include rhyming, segmenting, blending, and identifying individual sounds (phonemes) (Yopp, 1992). Developing strong phonological awareness is often a key predictor of later reading success (Snow et al., 1998). The teaching of phonological awareness (phoneme isolation, blending, and segmentation) and the alphabetic principle (the understanding that written letters (graphemes) represent the sounds (phonemes) of spoken language) in L1 improves phonological awareness and the alphabetic principle in L2 as well as in L1. This then leads to the improvement of word reading in both L1 and L2 (Vaughn et al., 2006; Wawire & Kim, 2018).

Some studies have been undertaken in Africa to consider whether, in early years settings and at the lower levels of primary school, simultaneously learning in a heritage language and English as a subject (or the ‘lingua franca’) allows for the transfer of skills to support both languages’ development (Veii & Everatt, 2005; Kim & Piper, 2019; Humble et al., 2024; De Sousa et al., 2010; Kim et al., 2025; de Galbert, 2023).

A recent study in northern Nigerian government schools supports bidirectionality and linguistic interdependence. When testing 2328 Grade 3 children in Hausa and English after participating in a two year structured English reading programme, Hausa (L1) sounds and word scores are shown to correlate with English (L2) sounds and word scores (Humble et al., 2024). Two studies that look at reading competence in primary schools in Kenya consider whether proficiency in English (L2) reading is related to competence in Kiswahili (L1) literacy skills (Kim & Piper, 2019; Wawire & Kim, 2018). Wawire and Kim (2018) hypothesise that an intervention focusing on phonological awareness and letter sound knowledge in Kiswahili in a multilingual classroom will transfer to the letter sound and phonological awareness not only in Kiswahili but also in English. A total of 322 first-grade multilingual students participated in the study, with 165 in the treatment group and 157 in the comparison group. Pre- and post-test data were gathered using a variety of tests, including the Early Grade Reading Assessment, to consider the outcomes of an 8 week intervention period. The treatment children were provided with training in phonological awareness and letter knowledge outside of their Kiswahili literacy instruction time, as they were pulled out of their classroom for these extra sessions. The comparison group continued with their own curriculum. The results provide both correlational and causal evidence that supports the interdependence hypothesis for phonological awareness and letter sound knowledge. That is, the training in Kiswahili provided large effects on phonological awareness and letter sound knowledge in both Kiswahili and English. Wawire and Kim (2018) cite the importance of ‘explicit and systematic instruction’ for language learning. With regard to policy, carrying out literacy skills in a child’s more familiar language, in this case Kiswahili, promotes skills in a less familiar one, English (p. 457). Kim and Piper (2019) state that the language policy in Kenya encourages learning in the local language at the pre-primary level. With more than 40 languages in Kenya, this can cause complex challenges. Children may speak a language at home, whilst learning both Kiswahili and English (Kenya’s two official languages) at school. However, in practice, children are taught in English in pre-primary and primary classrooms, as many schools ignore the language learning policy. In their study, Kim and Piper utilise longitudinal data from the Primary Maths and Reading programme (PRIMR) intervention, with children in Grades 1 and 2 in treatment and control groups. Testing at three time points, starting at the beginning of Grade 1 (N = 996) and ending at the end of Grade 2 (N = 628), the literacy skills in Kiswahili and English were over time, shown to be reciprocally related, thus supporting bidirectionality.

De Sousa et al. (2010) find a positive transfer relationship across L1 (Zulu) and L2 (English) for Grade 2 children studying in schools situated in an urban area of Gauteng, South Africa. There are positive effects of phonological processing on reading and spelling acquisition across L1 (Zulu) and L2 (English). A single language general processing ability drives the bidirectional transfer of phonological awareness in L1 (Zulu) and L2 (English). Another study from South Africa considers longitudinal data from the Early Grade Reading Study (EGRS I) to examine literacy skills between children’s L1 (Setswana) and L2 (English) (Kim et al., 2025). Children from 230 schools, numbering 4538 in the North West province of South Africa, were randomly assigned at the school level to either a treatment or control group. The treatment schools received different interventions for their Setswana literacy skills: 50 received teacher training, 50 coaching, 50 parental involvement (stopped after two years), and 80 no intervention. The project continued over four years from Grade 1 to Grade 4. Setswana (L1) literacy skills strongly predicted concurrent English (L2) reading skills in both the treatment and control groups. The longitudinal relation from Grade 2 Setswana (L1) literacy skills to Grade 4 English (L2) reading skills was found only for the treatment group.

Within literacy, there are both large and small problem spaces (Snow & Kim, 2007). Small problem spaces, including letters, phonemes, and decoding, are easier to teach and test. The large problem spaces within literacy, allowing for high levels of lexical knowledge, include vocabulary and meaning-making strategies (de Galbert, 2023). In his study of 3561 second grade students in 150 schools in Uganda, de Galbert (2023) considers cross-linguistic transfer between two Bantu languages—Luganda and Runyankole-Rukiga—and English not only focusing on small problem spaces, that is, the transfer of decoding skills, but also large problem spaces through the transfer of reading comprehension. Regarding test scores in reading comprehension, oral language, letter knowledge, and pseudowords, the research shows that there is a statistically significant correlation between all four indicators in L1 and L2. The research also finds that there is a cross-linguistic transfer from L1 to L2 in reading comprehension (de Galbert, 2023).

1.3. The Present Study

This paper sets out to explore any relationship between and within Hausa and English letter sound knowledge and word decoding skills in early years settings in northern Nigeria. Children are being taught in the school environment in their heritage languages of Hausa (L1) but also learning to read in English (L2) pre-immersion. The four questions of interest are as follows:

• Is there a correlation between phoneme and decoding scores in Hausa in early years settings in Nigeria?
• Is there a correlation between phoneme and decoding scores in English in early years settings in Nigeria?
• Are phoneme and decoding scores correlated between Hausa and English?
• As per the interdependence hypothesis, is there a bidirectional association between Hausa and English word/decoding scores?

This research was carried out in 158 government pre-primary settings in northern Nigeria. The decoding ability and letter sound knowledge in both Hausa (L1) and English (L2) were collected from 851 children.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

Data were gathered between July 2021 and August 2021 with 851 pre-primary school children. The government pre-primary schools were situated in nine states—Adamawa, Bauchi, Gombe, Jigawa, Kano, Katsina, Niger, Sokoto, and Yobe. The children in each class were taught by the same teacher. Pupils have a mean age of 4.02 years, with a standard deviation of 0.654 years. The gender split is close to 50–50, with 48.9% (n = 416) boys and 51.1% (n = 435) girls.

2.2. Procedure

The participants were tested on letter sound knowledge (phoneme) and decoding reading ability (word); thus, there were four tests in total, two in Hausa and two in English. The tests in Hausa and the tests in English were administered in separate sessions, and each child was tested individually in a quiet setting within their pre-primary environment. The assessments were administered by a trained government official or an academic using an assessment tool on a tablet. These assessors had been trained over a period of years as part of a larger study, collecting data on literacy interventions. The Nigerian government granted permission for the testing. The local education authorities in the nine states were instrumental in providing access to the randomly selected early childhood setting. Parents were informed by the head teacher and class teacher about the project and the focus on the importance of language skills in the early years. During the testing, children were told they could stop at any time, and that they did not need to take part if they did not want to. Each day, the data were downloaded to the central database, and any missing data or anomalies could be investigated with the assessor and rectified the following day, where necessary.

2.3. Instruments

The children took four different tests, two in Hausa (L1) and two in English (L2), a letter sound knowledge test (phoneme) and a word reading test (word). Hausa and English have some similar phonemes and some vowel phonemes in common, but as with all languages, they are not phonologically identical. The English word reading test was a version of the Phonics Screening Check used in the UK to test the ability to read and decode words using phonic sounds. The ‘check’ is made up of 40 words, half of which are nonsense words and half that are decodable. Duff et al. (2014), when assessing the validity and sensitivity of the Phonics Screening Check, find it to be strongly correlated with other literacy skills and sensitive to identifying at risk readers. The Phonics Screening Check shows convergent and discriminant validity. According to the Standards and Testing Agency (2012), the internal reliability of the PSC is α = 0.96. The Hausa word reading test also had a maximum score of 40 and was developed by academics at the Federal University of Gusau, Nigeria. A pilot undertaken with 50 early years students in Zamfara State, Nigeria, shows that for the Hausa test, the internal reliability of the Hausa sounds is α = 0.90 and for Hausa words, α = 0.78. As in the English word reading test, half were nonsense words and half were decodable. There are 42 phonics sounds in English. Children were tested on all of the sounds; the maximum in this test was 41, as the sound for ‘th’ can be voiceless or voiced. Thus, it was felt in this context too distinct of a variation. The Hausa sound test had a maximum score of 35, with the Hausa alphabet omitting the letters ‘x’, ‘v’, ‘p’, and ‘q’ but having letter combinations with two or more forms for ‘b’, ‘d’, ‘f’, ‘g’, ‘k’, and ‘y’.

3. Results

Data were analysed using SPSS (version 28) and Stata (version 18) to consider the four research questions:

• Is there a correlation between phoneme and decoding scores in Hausa in early years settings in Nigeria?
• Is there a correlation between phoneme and decoding scores in English in early years settings in Nigeria?
• Are phoneme and decoding scores correlated between Hausa and English?
• As per the interdependence hypothesis, is there a bidirectional association between Hausa and English word/decoding scores?

This research section is divided into three parts. The first sets out the descriptive data, the second explores the bivariate analysis to answer the first three questions, and finally, the third discusses the path analysis which is undertaken through structural equation modelling to consider the interdependence hypothesis, including an exploration into any gender differences.

Table 1. Means and standard deviations.

Total Test Scores
	Hausa Letter Sound (Phoneme) Knowledge	Hausa Word Reading Decoding	English Letter Sound (Phoneme) Knowledge	English Word Reading Decoding
Total mean score (SD)	20.65 (8.257)	17.69 (11.712)	24.06 (9.900)	17.57 (11.467)
Male mean score (SD)	20.96 (8.255)	17.99 (11.832)	24.33 (9.725)	17.70 (11.838)
Female mean score (SD)	20.35 (8.256)	17.41 (11.602)	23.80 (10.069)	17.45 (11.113)
Total skewness	−0.236	0.262	−0.230	0.194
Total kurtosis	−0.571	−1.198	−0.802	−1.177

shows the mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis for all four test scores. Normal univariate distribution is shown through scores having an acceptable range of values for kurtosis (0 to −1.5) and skewness (−0.5 to +0.5) (Burdenski, 2000; Gravetter & Wallnau, 2014). Also included are the means and standard deviations by gender. It is interesting to note that there is no statistically significant difference between the scores for boys and girls. Carrying out an independent sample t test provides the following results: Hausa letter sound (t(849) = 1.077, p > 0.05), Hausa word reading (t(849) = 0.715, p > 0.05), English letter sound (t(849) = 0.780, p > 0.05), and English word reading (t(839) = 0.319, p > 0.05). The boxplot in Figure 1 visually illustrates the lack of significant differences between the scores for boys and girls.

In order to answer the first two research questions that consider the correlation between phoneme and decoding scores, bivariate correlations were carried out between the test scores. The two scatterplots in Figure 2 illustrate the relationship between letter sound knowledge and word reading scores in Hausa and English. Both plots visually demonstrate clear positive associations between these test scores in Hausa and English. As shown in

Table 2. Bivariate correlations between Hausa and English scores.

	Hausa Scores (L1)		English Scores (L2)
	Sounds (Phoneme)	Word Decoding	Sounds (Phoneme)	Word Decoding
Hausa Sounds (Phoneme) (L1)	1
Hausa Word Decoding (L1)	0.764 **	1
English Sounds (Phoneme) (L2)	0.863 **	0.738 **	1
English Word Decoding (L2)	0.730 **	0.868 **	0.772 **	1

Correlations are significant at the ** p < 0.01 level (2-tailed).

, for Hausa sounds and words, there is a statistically significant positive correlation with a strong effect size (r = 0.764, p < 0.01). This is similar for English sounds and words (r = 0.772, p < 0.01).

The third question considers any correlations between phoneme and decoding scores for Hausa and English. The scatterplot diagrams (Figure 3) graphically illustrate the associations between Hausa and English sounds and Hausa and English words. In addition to this visual check, it is important to measure the strength of the relationship between the two variables. Table 2 shows the bivariate correlations between Hausa and English test scores for both sounds and word decoding. There is a statistically significant positive correlation between Hausa and English test scores for both sounds and words. For English sounds and Hausa sounds, the effect size is very strong and statistically positively significant (r = 0.863, p < 0.01), where 74.5% of the variation is explained by the correlation. For English word decoding and Hausa word decoding, the effect size again is very strong (r = 0.868, p < 0.01), where 75.3% of the variation is explained (Humble, 2020).

To address the fourth research question, a just-identified feedback path model was constructed to explore any bidirectional association between Hausa and English word/decoding scores as per the interdependence hypothesis (Kenny, 1979). Path analysis, implemented within a Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) framework (Kline, 2016; Loehlin & Beaujean, 2017), was used to estimate relationships based on the observed covariance structures. The disturbance terms were allowed to covary due to their related nature. The model demonstrates good fit, with only 23% and 25% of the variance in Hausa and English word scores, respectively, remaining unexplained (Figure 4).

As previously demonstrated through Pearson correlations, this feedback path model reiterates the significant, strong bivariate correlation between Hausa sound and English sound scores (r = 0.86, p < 0.001).

Standardised path coefficients reveal significant direct causes between Hausa and English word scores (β = 0.367, p < 0.001; β = 0.446, p < 0.001). The results also indicate that Hausa sound scores predict Hausa word scores (β = 0.441, p < 0.001) and English sound scores predict English word scores (β = 0.504, p < 0.001) (

Table 3. Regression-standardised structural coefficients.

	Endogenous Variables
Exogenous Variables	L1 Word (Hausa)	L2 Word (English)
L1 phonemes (Hausa)	0.441 *** (0.038)
L1 word (Hausa)		0.367 *** (0.053)
L2 phonemes (English)		0.504 *** (0.040)
L2 word (English)	0.446 *** (0.049)

Standard errors in parenthesis. *** p < 0.001.

and Figure 4). Cross-linguistic relationships are revealed that are consistent with Cummins’ interdependence framework.

To assess the construct validity of the path model, measurement invariance across gender was evaluated. Structural path coefficients were constrained to equality across male and female subgroups and tested using the Wald χ² procedure. The non-significant Wald test results (

Table 4. Male and female—regression standardised structural coefficients.

Endogenous Variables
Exogenous Variables		L1 Word (Hausa)		L2 Word (English)		Wald Test
		Male	Female	Male	Female
L1 sounds (Hausa)	Male	0.410 *** (0.048)				χ2(1) = 0.548, p = 0.459
	Female		0.478 *** (0.060)
L1 word (Hausa)	Male			0.369 *** (0.070)		χ2(1) = 0.015, p = 0.903
	Female				0.373 *** (0.079)
L2 sounds (English)	Male			0.505 *** (0.054)		χ2(1) = 0.476, p = 0.490
	Female				0.498 *** (0.060)
L2 word (English)	Male	0.489 *** (0.062)				χ2(1) = 0.585, p = 0.444
	Female		0.394 *** (0.078)

Standard errors in parenthesis *** p < 0.001.

and Figure 5) across all structural path coefficients indicated full metric invariance, demonstrating that the relationships specified in the model did not differ statistically between boys and girls. These results support the stability and generalisability of the cross-language transfer model across gender subgroups within the data.

4. Discussion

This research investigates whether there is any interconnectedness between Hausa and English sound and word language skills for children learning in early childhood settings in northern Nigeria. A total of 851 children attending early childhood government provision, learning to read Hausa (L1) and English (L2) simultaneously, took part in this study to consider any linguistic interdependence at this early age. The children were tested in their Hausa and English letter sound knowledge (phoneme) and their decoding skills (word). There is limited research that has been carried out in an African setting, and even fewer in early childhood settings. The results here provide correlation evidence concerning the transfer of skills between Hausa–English, adding to the sparse literature (Wawire & Kim, 2018). Descriptive data show that the data follow a normal univariate distribution and that there are no statistically significant differences in the mean test scores for boys and girls. The four questions of interest are explored using bivariate correlations and path analysis. Visualisations are provided through scatterplot diagrams, showing clear positive associations in both Hausa and English for sound–word correspondence. Hausa sound and word (r = 0.764, p < 0.01) and English sound and word (r = 0.772, p < 0.01) correlations are positively significant and strong. These data suggest the relationship between sound knowledge and word reading ability (Vaughn et al., 2006; Wawire & Kim, 2018; Kim & Piper, 2019; Kim et al., 2025). Exploring the associations between Hausa and English sounds and Hausa and English words, bivariate correlations show very strong, significant positive associations between Hausa and English letter sound scores (r = 0.863, p < 0.01) and Hausa and English word scores (r = 0.868, p < 0.01). We also find that there are bivariate correlations between Hausa (L1) sounds and English (L2) words (r = 0.730, p < 0.01) and English (L2) sounds and Hausa (L1) words (r = 0.738, p < 0.01). These findings, although from a cross-sectional study and with their own limitations, support Durgunoğlu’s (2002) hypothesis that reading processes acquired once in a child’s language development, are able to be transferred to another language. These outcomes can also be understood as evidence that children do not operate with two separate linguistic systems, but draw from a single, integrated linguistic repertoire (Otheguy et al., 2015, 2019; Wei, 2018). Finally, a just-identified feedback path model indicates that the Hausa sound score has a strong positive effect on the Hausa word score, and the English sound score has a strong positive effect on the English word score (β = 0.441, p < 0.001; β = 0.504, p < 0.001). Hausa and English word scores are bidirectionally associated (β = 0.367, p < 0.001; β = 0.446, p < 0.001). These are consistent with and thus support Cummins’ interdependence hypothesis. This suggests the presence of a ‘language-universal’ processing mechanism for these early years’ emergent bilinguals. That is, these children are maintaining and building upon their Hausa skills whilst in the process of developing their English proficiency in early years settings (De Sousa et al., 2010; Cummins, 1979, 2001).

With the Nigerian government having proposed a new National Language Policy for schools in 2022, yet to be universally implemented, the findings here of interdependence and bidirectionality when learning to read in a heritage language (Hausa) and English at the pre-primary stage are timely and important. These findings show that literacy skills and proficiency in Hausa and English are built alongside and are connected to each other. English is regarded as a leading language of international communication, business, academia, and diplomacy. English facilitates global connectivity, cultural exchange, and access to the digital landscape. Heritage language connects people to their cultural roots, enhancing identity. Learning a heritage language can promote intercultural understanding and a sense of belonging.

5. Limitations and Future Directions

The current findings should be interpreted keeping in mind the following limitations. First, the present findings are likely to be generalisable to pre-primary grade children in Nigeria with similar demographic characteristics: pre-primary grade children learning to read in Hausa and English and attending government provided schooling in northern Nigeria. It is plausible that a variety of social and contextual factors may have shaped the extent and direction of cross-linguistic influences on the measured outcome variables. These influences, for example, may include differences in language exposure, literacy practices at home and school, and the sociolinguistic status of each language. In our present study, such factors were not systematically examined. Future research could adopt a more comprehensive approach to investigating the role of social and contextual variables in shaping reading development in both the first language (L1) and the second language (L2). Second, this study in the context of L1 to L2 reading development and its bidirectionality is a cross-sectional design which only offers a static view of the relationship between the two languages. This may make it difficult to determine the direction or timing of cross-language transfer. A correlation between L1 phoneme awareness and L2 decoding observed at a single time point cannot reveal whether L1 skills supported the emergence of L2 decoding, whether the reverse occurred, or whether both are driven by shared underlying abilities or environmental influences. Cross-sectional data also obscure potential threshold effects, whereby transfer may only occur after a certain level of proficiency in one language is reached, and cannot capture shifts in the transfer direction that may occur over time. Interpretations of cross-language transfer through cross-sectionally designed projects remain tentative and susceptible to confounding factors.

With over 500 indigenous languages, the Nigerian context for early childhood settings remains complicated. Societal multilingualism in Nigeria provides an added dilemma for teachers, policy makers, governments, and parents. The practical application of teaching in the language of the immediate community faces many hurdles, as does the impossibility of developing every indigenous language for use as a medium of instruction. The lack of standardised orthographies, qualified teachers, inadequate curriculum materials, and varying policy implementation all add to the challenges of the 2022 National Language Policy. More research on specific sociolinguistic contexts and language choices for early childhood settings and education is required.