Association Between Coffee Consumption and Metabolic Syndrome Components Among Saudi Adults
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population and Design
2.2. Anthropometric Measurements and Definition of MetS
2.3. Assessment of Other Covariates
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Study Strengths
4.2. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
HDL-C | High-density lipoprotein cholesterol |
LDL-C | Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol |
TC | Total cholesterol |
TG | Triglyceride |
HbA1c | Hemoglobin A1c |
FBG | Fasting blood glucose |
WC | Waist circumference |
BP | Blood glucose |
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Coffee Consumption | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Categories | Yes (N = 85) | No (N = 10) | p-Value * |
High WC | No | 4 (4.7%) | 1 (10%) | 0.478 |
Yes | 81 (95.3%) | 9 (90%) | ||
High BP | No | 30 (35.3%) | 5 (50%) | 0.362 |
Yes | 55 (64.7%) | 5 (50%) | ||
High FBG | No | 45 (52.9%) | 5 (50%) | 0.860 |
Yes | 40 (47.1%) | 5 (50%) | ||
Low HDL | No | 47 (55.3%) | 9 (90%) | 0.035 |
Yes | 38 (44.7%) | 1 (10%) | ||
High TGs | No | 64 (75.3%) | 9 (90%) | 0.297 |
Yes | 21 (24.7%) | 1 (10%) |
High WC | High BP | High TGs | Low HDL | High FBG | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yes (n = 81) | No (n = 4) | p-Value | Yes (n = 55) | No (n = 30) | p-Value | Yes (n = 21) | No (n = 64) | p-Value | Yes (n = 38) | No (n = 47) | p-Value | Yes (n = 40) | No (n = 45) | p-Value | ||
Coffee cup size | S | 31 (38.3%) | 1 (25%) | 0.602 | 23 (41.8%) | 9 (30%) | 0.243 | 10 (47.6%) | 22 (34.4%) | 0.022 | 13 (34.2%) | 19 (40.4%) | 0.488 | 15 (37.5%) | 17 (37.8%) | 0.702 |
M | 19 (23.5%) | 2 (50%) | 11 (20%) | 10 (33.3%) | 1 (4.8%) | 20 (31.3%) | 12 (31.6%) | 9 (19.1%) | 10 (25%) | 11 (24.4%) | ||||||
L | 12 (14.8%) | 0 | 6 (10.9%) | 6 (20%) | 6 (28.6%) | 6 (9.4%) | 6 (15.8%) | 6 (12.8%) | 4 (10%) | 8 (17.8%) | ||||||
XL | 19 (23.5%) | 1 (25%) | 15 (27.3%) | 5 (16.7%) | 4 (19%) | 16 (25%) | 7 (13.4%) | 13 (27.7%) | 11 (27.5%) | 9 (20%) | ||||||
Coffee cups/day | <1 (once a week) | 6 (7.4%) | 0 | 0.429 | 4 (7.3%) | 2 (6.7%) | 0.373 | 2 (7.4%) | 4 (6.3%) | 0.013 | 2 (5.3%) | 4 (8.5%) | 0.605 | 1 (2.5%) | 5 (11.1%) | 0.491 |
1 | 30 (37%) | 0 | 18 (32.7%) | 12 (40%) | 3 (37%) | 27 (42.2%) | 12 (31.6%) | 18 (38.3%) | 15 (37.5%) | 15 (33.3%) | ||||||
2 | 15 (18.5%) | 1 (25%) | 8 (14.5%) | 8 (26.7%) | 9 (18.5%) | 7 (10.9%) | 10 (26.3%) | 6 (12.8%) | 7 (17.5%) | 9 (20%) | ||||||
3 | 15 (18.5%) | 1 (25%) | 11 (20%) | 5 (31.3%) | 3 (18.5%) | 13 (20.3%) | 7 (18.4%) | 9 (19.1%) | 7 (17.5%) | 9 (20%) | ||||||
> 3 | 15 (18.5%) | 2 (50%) | 14 (25.5%) | 3 (10%) | 4 (18.5%) | 13 (20.3%) | 7 (18.4%) | 10 (21.3%) | 10 (25%) | 7 (15.6%) | ||||||
Types of coffee | Arabic | 73 (90.1%) | 3 (75%) | 0.243 | 48 (87.3%) | 28 (93.3%) | 0.822 | 21 (100%) | 55 (85.9%) | 0.496 | 34 (89.5%) | 42 (89.4%) | 0.132 | 28 (84.8%) | 48 (92.3%) | 0.522 |
Cappuccino | 12 (14.8%) | 1 (25%) | 8 (14.5%) | 5 (16.7%) | 4 (19%) | 9 (14.1%) | 6 (15.8%) | 7 (14.9%) | 4 (12.1%) | 9 (17.3%) | ||||||
Black | 25 (30.9%) | 2 (50%) | 20 (36.4%) | 7 (23.3%) | 7 (33.3%) | 20 (31.3%) | 13 (34.2%) | 14 (29.8%) | 14 (42.4%) | 13 (25%) | ||||||
Turkish | 8 (9.9%) | 1 (25%) | 7 (12.7%) | 2 (6.7%) | 2 (9.5%) | 7 (10.9%) | 4 (10.5%) | 5 (10.6%) | 3 (9.1%) | 6 (11.5%) | ||||||
Instant | 13 (16%) | 0 | 10 (18.2%) | 3 (10%) | 0 | 13 (20.3%) | 6 (15.8%) | 7 (14.9%) | 3 (9.1%) | 10 (19.2%) | ||||||
Americano | 1 (1.2%) | 0 | 1 (1.8%) | 0 | 0 | 1 (1.6%) | 1 (2.6%) | 0 | 1 (3.0%) | 0 | ||||||
Cold | 1 (1.2%) | 0 | 1 (1.8%) | 0 | 0 | 1 (1.6%) | 1 (2.6%) | 0 | 1 (3.0%) | 0 | ||||||
Latte | 1 (1.2%) | 0 | 1 (1.8%) | 0 | 1 (4.8%) | 0 | 1 (2.6%) | 0 | 0 | 1 (1.9%) | ||||||
Mocha | 2 (2.5%) | 0 | 1 (1.8%) | 1 (3.3%) | 0 | 2 (3.1%) | 1 (2.6%) | 1 (2.1%) | 1 (3.0%) | 1 (1.9%) | ||||||
Coffee additives | Milk | 13 (16%) | 0 | 0.921 | 11 (20%) | 2 (6.7%) | 0.369 | 5 (23.8%) | 8 (12.5%) | 0.585 | 7 (18.4%) | 6 (12.8%) | 0.137 | 2 (6.1%) | 11 (21.2%) | 0.368 |
Sugar | 9 (11.1%) | 0 | 6 (10.9%) | 3 (10%) | 3 (14.3%) | 6 (9.4%) | 5 (13.2%) | 4 (8.5%) | 0 | 9 (17.3%) | ||||||
Sweetener | 3 (3.7%) | 0 | 3 (5.5%) | 0 | 1 (4.8%) | 2 (3.1%) | 0 | 3 (6.4%) | 1 (3.0%) | 2 (3.8%) | ||||||
Syrup | 1 (1.2%) | 0 | 1 (1.8%) | 0 | 1 (4.8%) | 0 | 0 | 1 (2.1%) | 0 | 1 (1.9%) | ||||||
Shredded chocolate | 1 (1.2%) | 0 | 0 | 1 (3.3%) | 0 | 1 (1.6%) | 0 | 1 (2.1%) | 0 | 1 (1.9%) | ||||||
Stevia sugar | 2 (2.5%) | 0 | 0 | 2 (6.7%) | 0 | 2 (3.1%) | 0 | 2 (4.3%) | 1 (3.0%) | 1 (1.9%) | ||||||
None | 60 (64.1%) | 4 (100%) | 40 (72.7%) | 24 (80%) | 15 (71.4%) | 49 (76.6%) | 28 (73.7%) | 36 (76.6%) | 29 (87.9%) | 35 (67.3%) |
Variable | TGs | HDL | FBG | WC | SBP | DBP | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
r * | p-Value | r | p-Value | r | p-Value | r | p-Value | r | p-Value | r | p-Value | |
Coffee cup size (mL) | −0.020 | 0.855 | 0.122 | 0.275 | 0.104 | 0.322 | 0.299 | 0.038 | 0.033 | 0.765 | −0.034 | 0.757 |
Coffee cups/day | 0.164 | 0.134 | 0.050 | 0.655 | 0.119 | 0.279 | −0.078 | 0.486 | 0.045 | 0.681 | −0.119 | 0.279 |
BMI | LDL | TC | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean ± SD | p-Value | Mean ± SD | p-Value | Mean ± SD | p-Value | ||
Coffee cup size | S | 33.3 ± 7.6 | 0.133 | 3.0 ± 1.0 | 0.578 | 4.7 ± 1.2 | 0.498 |
M | 32.9 ± 5.3 | 2.8 ± 0.9 | 4.4 ± 1.0 | ||||
L | 35.0 ± 5.5 | 3.2 ± 1.1 | 5.0 ± 1.2 | ||||
XL | 37.1 ± 6.0 | 3.2 ± 0.8 | 4.9 ± 1.0 | ||||
Coffee cups/day | <1 (once a week) | 43.1 ± 11.5 | 0.008 | 4.0 ± 1.6 | 0.052 | 5.7 ± 1.7 | 0.046 |
1 | 32.6 ± 4.5 | 2.8 ± 0.8 | 4.4 ± 1.1 | ||||
2 | 33.9 ± 5.8 | 3.2 ± 0.9 | 4.9 ± 0.9 | ||||
3 | 34.0 ± 4.8 | 2.8 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 1.0 | ||||
>3 | 35.1 ± 6.5 | 3.2 ± 1.0 | 4.9 ± 1.1 | ||||
Types of coffee | Arabic | 34.8 ± 6.6 | 0.407 | 3.1 ± 1.0 | 0.668 | 4.7 ± 1.1 | 0.469 |
Cappuccino | 33.9 ± 6.2 | 3.3 ± 0.8 | 4.9 ± 0.9 | ||||
Black | 35.0 ± 7.6 | 3.2 ± 1.1 | 4.8 ± 1.4 | ||||
Turkish | 32.7 ± 7.1 | 2.8 ± 1.0 | 4.2 ± 1.2 | ||||
Instant | 37.8 ± 0.9 | 3.0 ± 1.0 | 4.5 ± 1.1 | ||||
Americano | 25.2 ± 0.0 | 1.2 ± 0.0 | 2.2 ± 0.0 | ||||
Cold | 43.2 ± 0.0 | 2.9 ± 0.0 | 4.1 ± 0.0 | ||||
Latte | 30.0 ± 0.0 | 3.7 ± 0.0 | 5.1 ± 0.0 | ||||
Mocha | 34.4 ± 6.6 | 2.9 ± 0.1 | 4.7 ± 0.1 | ||||
Coffee additives | Milk | 35.6 ± 6.4 | 0.515 | 3.3 ± 0.7 | 0.655 | 5.1 ± 0.9 | 0.704 |
Sugar | 36.0 ± 5.1 | 3.1 ± 0.4 | 4.5 ± 0.8 | ||||
Sweetener | 33.9 ± 10 | 3.1 ± 1.3 | 4.8 ± 1.3 | ||||
Syrup | 45.0 ± 0.0 | 4.5 ± 0.0 | 6.3 ± 0.0 | ||||
Shredded chocolate | 37 ± 0.0 | 3.7 ± 0.0 | 4.7 ± 0.0 | ||||
Stevia sugar | 40.6 ± 4.9 | 2.8 ± 0.9 | 4.5 ± 1.0 | ||||
None | 34.0 ± 6.9 | 3.0 ± 1.0 | 4.7 ± 1.2 |
Variable | BMI | LDL | TC | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
r * | p-Value | r | p-Value | r | p-Value | |
Coffee cup size (mL) | 0.282 | 0.009 | 0.079 | 0.486 | 0.104 | 0.357 |
Coffee cups/day | −0.015 | 0.891 | 0.011 | 0.920 | −0.008 | 0.946 |
β * | 95% CI | p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | ||||
Coffee cup size | 0.842 | 0.559 | 1.269 | 0.412 | |
Number of coffee cups/day | 0.691 | 0.468 | 1.019 | 0.062 | |
Types of coffee | Arabic | 2.143 | 0.531 | 8.646 | 0.284 |
Cappuccino | 1.517 | 0.427 | 5.395 | 0.519 | |
Black | 0.452 | 0.178 | 1.150 | 0.096 | |
Turkish | 1.304 | 0.303 | 5.618 | 0.721 | |
Instant | 2.381 | 0.603 | 9.359 | 0.215 | |
Americano | -- | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.00 | |
Cold | -- | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.00 | |
Latte | -- | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.00 | |
Mocha | 0.627 | 0.038 | 10.389 | 0.745 | |
Coffee additives | Milk | 4.159 | 0.859 | 20.133 | 0.077 |
Sugar | -- | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.999 | |
Sweetener | 1.280 | 0.111 | 14.702 | 0.843 | |
Syrup | -- | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.00 | |
Shredded chocolate | -- | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.00 | |
Stevia sugar | 0.627 | 0.038 | 10.389 | 0.745 | |
None | 0.284 | 0.086 | 0.938 | 0.039 |
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Alzahrani, W.I.; Alsharif, S.N.; Hafiz, M.S.; Alyoubi, D.A.; Alrizqi, A.M.; Younes, R.A.; Jahlan, A.M.; Yaghmour, K.A. Association Between Coffee Consumption and Metabolic Syndrome Components Among Saudi Adults. Metabolites 2025, 15, 163. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo15030163
Alzahrani WI, Alsharif SN, Hafiz MS, Alyoubi DA, Alrizqi AM, Younes RA, Jahlan AM, Yaghmour KA. Association Between Coffee Consumption and Metabolic Syndrome Components Among Saudi Adults. Metabolites. 2025; 15(3):163. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo15030163
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlzahrani, Wala I., Sarah N. Alsharif, Maryam S. Hafiz, Doaa A. Alyoubi, Amal M. Alrizqi, Raneem A. Younes, Alaa M. Jahlan, and Khaled A. Yaghmour. 2025. "Association Between Coffee Consumption and Metabolic Syndrome Components Among Saudi Adults" Metabolites 15, no. 3: 163. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo15030163
APA StyleAlzahrani, W. I., Alsharif, S. N., Hafiz, M. S., Alyoubi, D. A., Alrizqi, A. M., Younes, R. A., Jahlan, A. M., & Yaghmour, K. A. (2025). Association Between Coffee Consumption and Metabolic Syndrome Components Among Saudi Adults. Metabolites, 15(3), 163. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo15030163