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Volume 15
Issue 4
10.3390/electronics15040796
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Article

Closing the Loop: Sustainable and Cost-Effective Glucose Biosensors Through a Circular and Digital Design

by
Anna-Marie Stobo
1,*,
Daniel Izquierdo-Bote
2,
Lou Bernard
3,
Karl Hampton
1,
Natalia Wolfe
1,
Abigail Parker
1,
María Begoña González García
2,
Ignacio Zurano Villasuso
3,
Bradley Stockill
1,
Rafail O. Ioannidis
4,
Nikolaos D. Bikiaris
4,
Philip Robinson
1,
Steve Richardson
1,
Jack Maxfield
1,
Lilly Gill
1,
Georgia Peavoy
1,
Enrique Moliner
3 and
Glenn Lamming
1
1
CPI, Sedgefield TS21 3FE, UK
2
Metrohm DropSens, Parque Tecnológico de Asturias, 33428 Llanera, Spain
3
Lomartov, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
4
Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Technology, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Electronics 2026, 15(4), 796; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15040796
Submission received: 14 November 2025 / Revised: 5 February 2026 / Accepted: 9 February 2026 / Published: 12 February 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Printed Electronics: From Materials to Applications)
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Abstract

Electrochemical biosensors are becoming increasingly prevalent across medical, food, and bioprocessing industries for monitoring complex biological processes. However, their sensitivity to contamination and exposure to potentially hazardous biological species often necessitates single-use disposal, contributing to the release of high-value, high-demand, and environmentally damaging materials into the environment. This study investigates the feasibility of a closed-loop recycling process for single-use glucose biosensors, with a focus on the recovery and reuse of noble metals silver and gold. Guided by ecodesign principles and using low-impact materials, we developed a silver screen ink, gold syringe ink, and a poly(lactic acid) (PLA) substrate. Sensors were fabricated by additive manufacturing and screen printing—enabling the scalability afforded by screen printing to produce the high-coverage silver layer while also minimising gold ink waste using additive manufacturing. A low-energy recovery method that exploited selective solvent compatibility was developed to reclaim silver and gold. Second-generation devices were then fabricated, demonstrating performance comparable to commercial equivalents while achieving an 80% reduction in material usage, cost, and environmental impact across 16 categories using a life cycle assessment (LCA).
Keywords: biosensor; bio-based; inks; circularity; additive manufacturing; life cycle assessment; silver; gold; printed electronics; sustainable-by-design biosensor; bio-based; inks; circularity; additive manufacturing; life cycle assessment; silver; gold; printed electronics; sustainable-by-design
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MDPI and ACS Style

Stobo, A.-M.; Izquierdo-Bote, D.; Bernard, L.; Hampton, K.; Wolfe, N.; Parker, A.; García, M.B.G.; Villasuso, I.Z.; Stockill, B.; Ioannidis, R.O.; et al. Closing the Loop: Sustainable and Cost-Effective Glucose Biosensors Through a Circular and Digital Design. Electronics 2026, 15, 796. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15040796

AMA Style

Stobo A-M, Izquierdo-Bote D, Bernard L, Hampton K, Wolfe N, Parker A, García MBG, Villasuso IZ, Stockill B, Ioannidis RO, et al. Closing the Loop: Sustainable and Cost-Effective Glucose Biosensors Through a Circular and Digital Design. Electronics. 2026; 15(4):796. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15040796

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stobo, Anna-Marie, Daniel Izquierdo-Bote, Lou Bernard, Karl Hampton, Natalia Wolfe, Abigail Parker, María Begoña González García, Ignacio Zurano Villasuso, Bradley Stockill, Rafail O. Ioannidis, and et al. 2026. "Closing the Loop: Sustainable and Cost-Effective Glucose Biosensors Through a Circular and Digital Design" Electronics 15, no. 4: 796. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15040796

APA Style

Stobo, A.-M., Izquierdo-Bote, D., Bernard, L., Hampton, K., Wolfe, N., Parker, A., García, M. B. G., Villasuso, I. Z., Stockill, B., Ioannidis, R. O., Bikiaris, N. D., Robinson, P., Richardson, S., Maxfield, J., Gill, L., Peavoy, G., Moliner, E., & Lamming, G. (2026). Closing the Loop: Sustainable and Cost-Effective Glucose Biosensors Through a Circular and Digital Design. Electronics, 15(4), 796. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15040796

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