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Review

Research Progress on Polysaccharide Composite Films and Coatings with Antioxidant and Antibacterial Ingredients to Extend the Shelf Life of Animal-Derived Meat

by
Ming Yuan
1,
Jun Mei
1,2,3,4,* and
Jing Xie
1,2,3,4,*
1
College of Food Science & Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
2
Shanghai Professional Technology Service Platform on Cold Chain Equipment Performance and Energy Saving Evaluation, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
3
National Experimental Teaching Demonstration Center for Food Science and Engineering, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
4
Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Aquatic Product Processing & Preservation, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Coatings 2024, 14(10), 1338; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14101338
Submission received: 12 September 2024 / Revised: 15 October 2024 / Accepted: 16 October 2024 / Published: 18 October 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Coatings and Films for Food Packing and Storage, 2nd Edition)
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Abstract

:
Animal-derived meat is rich in proteins and other nutrients, but is prone to spoilage during storage, including microbial contamination and fat oxidation. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find effective solutions to extend the shelf life of animal-derived meat. Polysaccharides are natural macromolecules containing multi-hydroxyl structures and functional groups, which have good solubility, film-forming properties, etc., and can form edible films. Polysaccharide films can be combined with biopolymers, nanoparticles, and natural active agents to improve their properties and enhance the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of the films. This review summarizes the various sources of polysaccharides, such as chitosan, hyaluronic acid, sodium alginate, carrageenan, starch, and pullulan polysaccharides and their combination with different substances to extend the shelf life of animal-derived meat. This review may serve as a reference for further development of polysaccharides in animal-derived meat preservation.

1. Introduction

Animal-derived meat, including poultry meat, livestock meat, and fish, is a significant source of nutrients and energy in the human diet. After an animal is slaughtered, animal-derived meat is preserved using methods such as refrigeration, curing, heat treatment, and packaging [1,2,3,4,5,6]. In addition to being protein-rich, animal-derived meat is a valuable source of micronutrients, antioxidants, vitamins, and unsaturated fatty acids [7,8]. However, they are prone to spoilage, leading to packaging swelling, unpleasant odors, discoloration, texture changes, and pH reduction, which result in noticeable sensory changes [9]. Fish is more perishable than livestock and poultry meat due to its higher content of free amino acids and water, and low levels of connective tissue. It undergoes rapid biochemical and enzymatic changes immediately after death. Both these changes and microbial activity lead to spoilage of fish meat [10]. The spoilage of animal-derived meat primarily results from enzymatic activity, microbial growth, lipid oxidation, and protein degradation [11,12].
Population growth and rising incomes will contribute significantly to the growth in global meat protein consumption over the next decade. The average global meat protein consumption is projected to increase by 11% in 2031 compared to the 2019–2021 period (OECD/FAO, 2022). The demand for animal-derived meat is rising, and traditional preservation methods are having difficulty meeting the current demand [13]. Recently, many studies have been conducted on the preservation methods of animal-derived meat, particularly those utilizing polysaccharide films [14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23]. Polysaccharides are naturally occurring macromolecules formed by the condensation and dehydrogenation of multiple monosaccharides to form polysaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. Therefore, polysaccharides exhibit the typical properties of polymeric compounds [24]. Polysaccharide-based edible membranes are derived from animal, plant, and microbial polysaccharides. These membranes contain polyhydroxy structures and functional groups, demonstrating excellent solubility, film-forming, and heat-sealing properties [25]. These membranes are applied to food surfaces through methods such as dipping and coating, forming a compact protective film that shields food from external factors [26]. The development of packaging materials with enhanced antioxidant and antibacterial activity, along with better barrier properties, presents greater opportunities to extend the shelf life of animal-derived meat. This can be accomplished by selecting component materials (reinforcement materials and base polymer) with built-in antimicrobial activity, antioxidant, and mechanical and barrier properties [27]. Adding other biopolymers, nanoparticles, or natural active agents can improve these characteristics, providing the active ingredients for the film [28,29].

2. Factors Affecting Spoilage of Animal-Derived Meat

2.1. Role of Endogenous Enzymes

After animal death, active endogenous enzymes break down the tissue in the meat. The calpain system, comprising μ-calpain and m-calpain, is considered to be the predominant endogenous protease system; the activation of μ/m-calpain is responsible for the increased tenderness observed in mature chicken breasts and lamb after slaughter [30,31]. In skeletal muscle, the lysosomal protein system and the calpain system lead to protein degradation. Cathepsin B, D, and L play roles in the texture of muscle tissue as muscle structure is destroyed [32]. Caspases are important endogenous enzymes; increases in caspase activity and decreases in meat shear force have been observed during post-slaughter ripening [33]. After slaughter, the pH of the muscle decreases, and the activity of endogenous enzymes also decreases when the pH drops to 5. This suggests that the role of endogenous enzymes after slaughter is negligible compared to microbial spoilage [34].

2.2. Role of Microorganisms

The shelf life of animal-derived meat is affected by the spoilage bacteria and pathogens on their external surfaces [35]. Spoilage characteristics become apparent when microorganisms deplete glucose and lactate in animal-derived meat and start utilizing proteins [36]. Some microorganisms, such as Lactobacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp., Enterobacteriaceae, and Thermococcus, metabolize usable substrates and produce volatile fatty acids, organic acids, sulfur compounds, ethyl esters, aldehydes, ammonia, ketones, etc., during storage, resulting in discoloration and off-flavors, and making animal-derived meat inedible [37,38]. The lactic acid bacteria in meat are obligatory heterofermentative producing lactic acid, acetic acid, CO2, and ethanol, or facultatively heterofermentative producing two moles of lactate from glucose. Most spoilage lactic acid bacteria can oxidize lactic acid or pyruvate to acetic acid when meat is stored aerobically with low concentrations of glucose. Acetic acid has a strong vinegary flavor that negatively affects the sensory quality of meat [39,40]. Lactic acid bacteria can utilize amino acids to produce biogenic amines, which can adversely affect the human body [41]. Pseudomonas aeruginosa in meat sauce produces significant amounts of ethyl acetate and methyl acetate under aerobic and freezing conditions [42].
In addition, effector proteins also can enzymatically hydrolyze biologically active, pathogenic, and invasive proteins, such as extracellular proteins secreted by bacteria and structural proteins capable of extension in the secretion system [43]. Extracellular enzymes secreted by P. aeruginosa and Serratia marcescens with protease or lipase activity degrade the physical and chemical properties of food, decreasing the functional and sensory quality of animal-derived meat [44]. Extracellular enzymes secreted by microorganisms, as well as endogenous enzymes in animal-derived meat, can promote biochemical reactions in animal-derived meat, affecting compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, which can alter the quality and taste of animal-derived meat [45].

2.3. Oxidation

One of the major challenges in the storage of animal-derived meat is oxidation. Oxidation degrades the quality, flavor, and acceptability of animal-derived meat, leading to taste deterioration. Oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in animal-derived meat forms lipid hydroperoxides, causing animal-derived meat deterioration [46]. Lipid oxidation can be catalyzed by the presence of reactive nitrogen species (RNS), reactive oxygen species (ROS), and metal ions. During oxidation, unsaturated fatty acids in animal-derived meat interact indirectly with oxygen, leading to the formation of hydroxyl radicals, hydrogen peroxide, and superoxide anion radicals [47].
Hydroxyl radicals are the main source of ROS and the most reactive radicals. Numerous ROS can initiate oxidative damage to lipids and proteins [48]. Heat treatment weakens the muscle’s antioxidant defense, reducing its resistance to protein oxidation [49].
Volatile compounds are often released during spoilage of animal-derived meat. Metabolic degradation of proteins and non-protein nitrogenous compounds are usually associated with the loss of freshness. The microbial markers of spoilage of animal-derived meat are volatile amines, which are mainly composed of ammonia, trimethylamine, and dimethylamine [50]. In addition to unpleasant odors from lipid oxidation, excessive protein oxidation causes nutritional loss, discoloration, textural degradation, and off-flavors [51]. It is important to minimize the free radical oxidation of proteins during the production and processing of animal-derived meat [52].

2.4. Other Influences

Rearing practices have a great impact on the quality of meat. Adding vitamin E (VE) to the diet or combining selenium (Se) with vitamin C increases the α-tocopherol content in chicken meat, thereby inhibiting lipid peroxidation [53,54,55]. The inclusion of ellagitannin-rich woody plant leaves in the diet increased the antioxidant capacity of meat after slaughter and under chilled or frozen conditions [56]. Including dietary vitamin A in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) enhanced antioxidant properties and fish quality [57].
Packaging is essential for preserving animal-derived meat, primarily to protect it from external influences and maintain its internal environment. Meat packaging is used to maintain color, reduce moisture loss, facilitate endogenous enzymes to improve tenderness, and reduce foreign microbial contamination [58,59]. For example, modified atmosphere packaging improved the color of buffalo meat, but failed to inhibit the buffalo meat’s WBSF and TBAR; vacuum packaging decreased the WBSF values of buffalo meat [60]. Vacuum-packed pork had better sensory quality and lower lipid oxidation [61]. Modified atmosphere packaging extended the shelf life of Rohu fish (Labeo rohita) compared to vacuum packaging and the control group, which facilitated the display and preservation of the fish on the shelf [62]. Studies indicate that aluminum packaging was preferred for packaging fish fillets to maintain the nutritional value of the fillets, as well as to extend the shelf life. Aluminum packaging maintained the physical characteristics of the fillets and reduced the total microbial population [63]. The mechanism of spoilage of animal-derived meat is shown in Figure 1.

3. The Application of Polysaccharides in Animal-Derived Meat Preservation

3.1. The Animal Polysaccharides

3.1.1. Chitosan

(1)
Overview of Chitosan
Chitosan is widely available in nature, and is extracted from crustaceans or certain fungi, and hydrolyzed by a strong alkali to obtain positively charged polysaccharides (Figure 2) [64]. Chitosan possesses antimicrobial, antioxidant, and enzyme inhibitory activities, as well as biodegradability traits. For example, chitosan’s strong oxygen barrier function can inhibit lipid oxidation and discoloration. The antibacterial and antifungal properties of chitosan are beneficial for prolonging the shelf life of animal-derived meat [65]. However, the barrier and mechanical properties of chitosan are poor, limiting the direct application of edible chitosan films. The composite membrane formed by chitosan and bioactive substances improves the mechanical properties of chitosan-based films, and endows chitosan-based films with different properties [66]. The application of chitosan is shown in Figure 3.
(2)
Application of Chitosan in animal-derived meat
(a)
Chitosan derivatization
Various synthesis methods such as enzymatic reaction, direct modification, or chemical grafting can yield chitosan derivatives, and enhance the properties of chitosan [67]. Maillard reaction products (MRPs) effectively reduced lipid oxidation, inhibited microbial spoilage, improved the quality, and kept meat fresh longer [68]. Chitosan-fructose MRPs, used as preservatives, can prolong the shelf life of frozen beef due to the antioxidant properties of the film [69]. During refrigerated storage, chitosan-glucose complexes can extend lamb’s shelf life by 2 days and preserve pork cocktail Italian sausages for up to 28 days [70]. Additionally, research has found that pathogenic Escherichia coli O157 in chicken juice can be inhibited by a novel arginine-functionalized chitosan. After treatment with arginine-functionalized chitosan, the growth of bacteria in meat juice was almost eliminated [71].
In addition, phenolic acid grafting can enhance the antioxidant capacity of chitosan. The grafting of caffeic acid onto chitosan has stronger antibacterial and antioxidant properties against E. coli, Candida, and Staphylococcus aureus [72].
(b)
Chitosan nanoparticles
Nanotechnology can encapsulate active substances or essential oils to preserve those that decompose or volatilize easily, enhancing their properties [73]. Chitosan nanoparticles combined with citrus essential oils effectively lowered E. coli and S. aureus levels, inhibited the formation of biofilm, changed the morphology of cell membrane, and destroyed mature biofilm. Therefore, citrus-chitosan nanoparticles had significant preservation potential for pork [74]. Curcumin-integrated chitosan nanoparticles were used to produce functional films based on mixed biopolymers. By measuring the values of (2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrohydrazyl) DPPH, its antioxidant activity was improved, and hindered E. coli and monocyte proliferating Listeria monocytogenes [75]. Biomass-derived nanoparticle (nanocellulose, nanohemicellulose, and nanolignin)-reinforced chitosan films showed improved ultraviolet (UV) barrier, tensile strength, and elongation properties, enhancing antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Biomass-derived nanoparticles reduced microbial counts initially and preserved goat meat quality [27]. Polycaprolactone-based electrospun membranes, combined with cinnamaldehyde chitosan nanoparticles, reduced thiobarbituric acid (TBA), pH, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N), and microbial content in chilled pork stored at 4 °C for 12 days, prolonging the shelf life [76]. The film was composed of cinnamaldehyde, chitosan nanoparticles, and 2% chitosan film, inhibiting the growth of Listeria in burgers [73]. A composite nano-film made from 0.6% chitosan and 0.1% nisin reduced TVB-N, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and pH. This film also maintained the color of tilapia fish sausage, extending the shelf life of tilapia fish sausage [77].
Nano-encapsulation technology can improve the bioactivity and stability of antimicrobial and antioxidant substances, offering great potential for application in animal-derived meat.
(c)
Chitosan Composite with Other Substances
Phenolic compounds with negative charges can interact with positively charged chitosan [78]. Phenolic compounds, possessing natural antibacterial and antioxidant properties, adsorb onto the main chain of chitosan through hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding, thereby enhancing its biomedical application materials’ antioxidant capacity due to the high reduction ability of chitosan extract towards phenolic compounds. Additionally, negatively charged pectin polysaccharides can interact with positively charged chitosan to further augment this antioxidant capacity when interacting with negatively charged polyphenols. Proanthocyanidin is also a natural phenolic compound with strong antioxidant and antibacterial properties, capable of reducing the swarming movement of P. aeruginosa [79]. Adding cranberry-derived proanthocyanidin to the packaging film was expected to prolong the shelf life of meat [80]. Adding tea polyphenol-loaded chitosan-coated nanoliposomes to chitosan/bacterial cellulose-based films improved elongation at break, thermal stability, and tea polyphenol stability. It can be used for chub preservation and extend shelf life [81].
Carboxymethylation of chitosan produced carboxymethyl chitosan, which is a water-soluble compound. For example, the zinc ion chelation is evenly distributed on the surface of the carboxymethyl chitosan and sodium alginate composite film, which exhibited good antibacterial and waterproof properties. When applied to frozen meat, the composite film can effectively increase shelf life [82]. A starch antioxidant film containing purslane had a stronger ability to scavenge DPPH free radicals than the antioxidant ability of chitosan and starch. Moreover, with the increase of purslane concentration, the antioxidant ability of the chitosan and purslane composite film was stronger, which was reflected in the good color retention effect of the composite film and the inhibition of changes in meat appearance. A chitosan and starch composite film containing purslane can significantly reduce the content of TBA and volatile basic nitrogen, and inhibit the oxidation of meat [83].
In addition to binding to phenolics, chitosan can also bind to acids and acid synthesizers for the preservation of animal-derived meat. The antimicrobial properties of chitosan-PLA plastic films were enhanced by the increase in moisture content and water vapor transmission rate. Grouper fillets treated with 0.5% chitosan-PLA plastic films exhibited a decrease in bacterial content and TVB-N at 4 °C, keeping the fillets fresh for approximately 9 days [84]. The addition of nisin and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid to the chitosan-polylactic acid composite film significantly improved antimicrobial activity and inhibited thermophilic and spoilage bacteria, as well as TVB-N, during storage at 25 °C and 4 °C. This composite film extended the freshness of grouper fillets [10]. The composite film formed by chlorogenic acid and chitosan coating was used for snakehead fish fillets, which inhibited trichloroacetic acid (TCA), TBARS, and the oxidation of proteins in the fillets and better preserved the odor and color of the fillets [85]. The composite film formed by gelatine from chitosan, salmon fish bone, clove oil, and gallic acid had good antibacterial and antioxidant activity. This composite film effectively preserved salmon fish fillets and prolonged the shelf life by at least 5 days [86].
Chitosan coatings can be combined with plant extracts and physical treatments such as heat treatment. The treatment of vacuum-packed braised duck leg during cold storage after chitosan coating, combined with heat treatment, inhibited the deterioration of duck leg and extended the shelf life [87].
Chitosan films are combined with phenolics that have antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, acids, or acid synthesizers that can improve the properties of the composite film and its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, as well as heat treatments, and then refrigerated to reduce the growth and reproduction of microorganisms. These measures are beneficial to the preservation of animal-derived meat. The practical applications of chitosan are shown in Table 1.

3.1.2. Hyaluronic Acid

(1)
Overview of Hyaluronic acid
Hyaluronic acid occurs naturally in all vertebrates and humans, presenting in virtually all body tissues and fluids, such as skin, hyaline cartilage, synovial fluid, and the vitreous humor of the eyeball [88,89]. It is moisturizing, viscoelastic, and resistant to mechanical damage. Hyaluronic acid is widely used for skin health, proliferation and differentiation of cells, and tissue repair [90]. Hyaluronic acid has a significant inhibitory effect on P. aeruginosa and S. aureus, making it suitable for the preservation of animal-derived meat [91].
(2)
Application of Hyaluronic acid in animal-derived meat
At −3 °C, coating crucian carp with 0.9% hyaluronic acid maintained fish quality, inhibited the production of TBA and TVB-N, and extended the shelf life [92]. The application of 0.9% hyaluronic acid on common carp (Cyprinus carpio) at −3 °C delayed the increase in conductivity, TVB-N, TBARS, and pH during storage, maintained meat water-holding capacity, and could prolong shelf life [93]. Polysaccharide-protein blended membranes have significant advantages in gas-mechanical properties, oil and grease resistance, and barrier properties, and are commonly used for the protection of food surfaces [94,95]. A composite film of 0.9% hyaluronic acid and 2% β-conglycinin applied to carp fillet delayed the increase of TBARS, TVB-N, pH, conductivity, TCA soluble peptide content of silver carp meat, and maintained fish water holding capacity [96]. Hyaluronic acid smart antimicrobial nanofiber treatment greatly decayed the growth of E. coli and prolonged the shelf life in beef preservation at 4 °C [97]. The practical applications of hyaluronic acid are shown in Table 2.

3.2. The Plant Polysaccharides

3.2.1. Sodium Alginate

(1)
Overview of Sodium Alginate
The anions in alginate can interact with multivalent metal cations (especially calcium ions) to form a strong gel or polymer with low solubility, which improves barrier performance, mechanical properties, stiffness, and internal holding energy. However, if the concentration of cations is increased, the porosity of alginate could be reduced during gelation, and the permeability or water content of the gel can also be reduced [98].
Its biodegradability, biocompatibility, and film-forming properties make it an excellent raw material for food packaging films. The prepared film can effectively block UV light and improve its antioxidant performance [99]. For example, the antioxidation and antimicrobial performance of pure sodium alginate film is relatively weak [100]. Adding natural plant essential oils to sodium alginate films strengthens antioxidant capacity and effectively inhibits microbial growth. Alternatively, adding thymol, ferulic acid, and other additives to sodium alginate can improve its oxidation, antibacterial activity, and tensile strength [101].
(2)
Application of sodium alginate in animal-derived meat
Sodium alginate membranes can be applied directly to animal-derived meat. For example, when 1.5% sodium alginate was applied to large yellow croaker at −1 °C and vacuum-packed, the samples showed improved preservation. The samples coated with sodium alginate showed relatively lower pH, TVB-N, and TBA and good sensory properties, and kept large yellow croaker fresh longer up to 29 days compared to the control [102]. Sodium alginate membranes were more often combined with bioactive ingredients to form composite membranes for the preservation of animal-derived meat. For example, alginate coatings not only maintained the sensory characteristics of frozen chicken legs, but also reduced microbial counts and improved oxidative stability. When mixed with lauryl arginine, these effects were amplified, and the antibacterial efficiency was improved at 50 °C [103]. Alginate with quercetin glucoside/hydroxyapatite complexes decreased the growth of spoilage bacteria at 6 °C and inhibited TVB-N at 11 days of refrigeration. During storage, this composite film maintained the fresh quality of the chicken fillet [104]. Konjac glucan and sodium alginate, loaded with thymol and epsilon-poly-L-lysine hydrochloride, formed composite films. The composite film increased Ca2+-ATPase activity, myofibrillar protein solubility, and sulfhydryl content, while reducing myofibrillar protein carbonyl content, surface hydrophobicity, and prolonged shelf life at a storage temperature of 4 °C [105]. A 2% sodium alginate/antimicrobial 1:10 protein solution significantly inhibited microbial growth, reduced TVB-N production, reduced nucleotide catabolism, retarded lipid oxidation and protein degradation in fish fillets, and maintained the sensory quality of sturgeon [106].
Sodium alginate can be combined with biologically active substances and bacterial fluids for the preservation of animal-derived meat. The grass carp were treated by Lactobacillus paracasei H9 and then coated with 1% sodium alginate. This composite film reduced TVB-N, TBA, and total bacterial counts, in addition to maintaining a better sensory evaluation of grass carp [107].
Sodium alginate can also be combined with essential oils for animal-derived meat preservation. Carvacrol, a key component of oregano essential oil, has broad-spectrum antimicrobial effects [108]. β-cyclodextrin and oregano essential oil of a sodium alginate edible coating were found to keep chicken breast meat fresh longer. In addition, sensory analysis indicated that the coated chicken breast was within an acceptable range for consumers [109]. Additionally, sodium alginate-loaded rosemary essential oil was used to preserve mutton burgers, since rosemary essential oil can inhibit Pseudomonas, lactic acid bacteria, and Enterobacteriaceae. This composite film delayed lipid oxidation in vacuum-packed mutton burgers [110]. A sodium alginate and rosemary essential oil coating significantly extended the shelf life of mutton burger patties, preserved sensory properties, and enhanced antibacterial and antioxidant activities during cold storage [111]. An agar sodium alginate double layer antibacterial film mixed with ginger essential oil can delay the protein breakdown and lipid oxidation of beef, hinder the growth of S. aureus, E. coli, and fungi, maintain the freshness of beef, and extend beef shelf life by 4–6 days [112]. Sodium alginate coatings with cinnamon essential oil and nisin delayed protein degradation and bacterial growth in beef, resulting in lower pH and TVB-N. This film significantly decreased microorganism growth and extended the beef shelf life, with low permeability to water vapor, low water loss of beef, stable color brightness, and good sensory value [113].
Tea polyphenols are extracted polyphenols derived from tea and are widely used antioxidants with the addition of suitable additives. For example, combining sodium alginate with silymarin in an active coating solution enhances its stability, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties [114]. Some studies have found that adding tea polyphenols to sodium alginate konjac glucomannan can improve the mechanical properties of the film, the antibacterial and antioxidant activities, and stability. Moreover, due to differences in the peptidoglycan layers of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, the film inhibited S. aureus more effectively than E. coli, showing good results in beef preservation [115]. Adding epigallocatechin gallate ester to sodium alginate and carboxymethyl cellulose to prepare an active edible coating can significantly inhibit lipid oxidation and microbial growth, reduce the weight loss of pork samples, and protect their color. In sensory evaluation, the active coating treatment of fresh pork had no adverse effect on sensory properties, improved the odor and color, the overall acceptance of the meat, and effectively extended the storage period of pork [116]. A sodium alginate film mixed with anthocyanins reduced nitrogen content, pH, and TBA index in stored chicken samples. During storage, the number of coagulase-positive S. aureus increased, but the growth rate was slower in samples with the film, improving chemical, microbial, and textural properties of the tested chicken willow [117]. The complex membrane formed by sodium alginate and tea polyphenols facilitated the storage of Lateolabrax japonicas. The film significantly reduced total volatile saline nitrogen, lipid oxidation, and proteolysis in fillet samples during storage [118]. Sodium alginate-konjac glucomannan films loaded with anthocyanins and tea polyphenols were used to preserve and test freshness of beef and fish at 4 °C. The films prolonged the shelf life by 2–4 days and changed color based on the degree of meat spoilage [119].
Colorimetric bilayer films formed by electrospinning techniques can indicate changes in meat products and keep them fresh longer. At 4 °C, the color of polyvinyl alcohol/sodium alginate/zein/chitosan bilayer films changes from yellow to purple, serving as a quality indicator sensor. Electrospinning technology can also encapsulate root bark tannins in sodium alginate/polyethylene oxide mixed nanofibers. Compared with the control group, the number of Streptococcus enteritidis in chickens at 25 °C sharply decreased. The film extended the chicken shelf life without affecting the sensory quality of the chicken [120]. The bilayer film consisted of a layer with polyvinylidene fluoride-vanillin (antibacterial layer) and a layer with polyvinyl alcohol-sodium alginate-alizarin (sensor layer). The bilayer films were sensitive to ammonia, which made color changes. The pork freshness was checked by color changes. Additionally, E. coli and S. aureus were hindered by the bilayer film. At 25 °C, the film monitored the freshness of pork and extended the shelf life [121].
The double cross-linked water gel adsorption pad, formed by sodium alginate and crab shell powder, had good compatibility with cinnamaldehyde, demonstrating stronger mechanical properties and good antibacterial ability against L. monocytogenes, Salmonella, S. aureus, and E. coli. When used in pallet packaging for chilled meat, it can absorb the exudates from the meat inside the substrate, avoiding reverse osmosis caused by compression or dumping, compared with the untreated group and other groups. The hydrogel pad can slow down pH and protein oxidation, inhibit microbial growth, reduce the juice loss rate, completely seal the exuded juice, and reduce the production of specific volatile substances. Compared with the untreated group, the shelf life of chilled meat had an extra extension of 4 days [122].
A composite film of alginate and nano-SiO2 significantly reduced malondialdehyde, TBARS, pH, and bacterial counts in grass carp. This film prolonged the shelf life of grass carp fish [123].
Combining sodium alginate with active substances, bacterial fluids, essential oils, tea polyphenols, or nano-silicon dioxide improves the film’s physical properties, antibacterial, and antioxidant abilities, extending meat shelf life. It can also be combined with other substances through electrospinning technology, which not only has antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, but may also have a color development effect to indicate the freshness of animal-derived meat. The application of sodium alginate is shown in Figure 4.
The practical applications of sodium alginate are shown in Table 3.

3.2.2. Carrageenan

(1)
Overview of Carrageenan
Carrageenan is a linear sulfated polysaccharide extracted from various red algae, and it has good water solubility. It has three main types: kappa, iota, and lambda [124]. Kappa-carrageenan has good biocompatibility and gelling capacity, and can be used as active packaging in animal-derived meat [125].
(2)
Application of Carrageenan in animal-derived meat
Carrageenan is widely used in chicken preservation. A composite film made of gelatin, carrageenan, corn protein, and turmeric essential oil can continuously release turmeric essential oil, and extend the chicken’s shelf life. This film also significantly enhances biological activity, demonstrating strong antibacterial properties [126]. Salmonella bacteriophages, used as eco-friendly antibacterial agents, enhanced food safety and helped prevent Salmonella contamination in chicken breast meat. The k-carrageenan/konjac glucomannan hydrogel film loaded with Salmonella bacteriophages has been shown to improve chicken preservation [127]. The active edible packaging film of semi-refined k-carrageenan and germinated fenugreek seed water extract was used for preserving chicken breast meat [128]. A film based on semi-refined iota-carrageenan/cassava starch (SRiC/CS) incorporated with SiO2-ZnO nanoparticles was fabricated, which kept minced chicken fresh longer, for up to 6 days [129]. Beta-cyclodextrin loaded with benzyl isothiocyanate was mixed with k-carrageenan to fabricated an antibacterial food packaging film. When the chicken breasts were packaged with the film, the total viable count was lowered [130].
In beef preservation, the addition of honey extract to the k-carrageenan composite film improved elongation at break, tensile strength, and puncture resistance, enhancing both its mechanical strength and flexibility [131]. Carrageenan loaded with ZIF-8 can deliver gallic acid, maintain freshness, and inhibit the oxidation of lipids and growth of microorganisms during the preservation of beef, improving the quality of preserved beef [132].
In pork preservation, antibacterial films made of k-carrageenan/carboxymethyl cellulose nanofibers/phytic acid can be used to preserve cooked pork. This composite film delayed browning, prevented dehydration, reduced oxidation, inhibited bacterial growth, and showed complete antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli; it also had good flame retardancy [133]. A k-carrageenan coating loaded with cinnamon essential oil extended the preservation of pork by retarding the growth of total viable count, reducing lipid oxidation, and maintaining the color of the sample [134]. The multi-cross-linked edible hydrogel made of gelatin, k-carrageenan, triple-helix, and tannic acid with phenolic hydroxyl groups maintained the temperature of refrigerated meat during brief periods of high temperatures [135]. The sodium alginate and carrageenan composite films were incorporated with peanut shell flavonoids, and this composite film kept chilled pork fresh longer [136].
In lamb preservation, a carrageenan-based active packaging film was mixed with olive leaf extract. This film had an antimicrobial property during the storage of lamb meat and prolonged the shelf life [137].
In fish preservation, a composite film made from virgin coconut oil nanoemulsion, iota carrageenan, and alginate was applied to pindang (mildly salted cooked) fish. This coating maintained product quality, showing no significant changes in bacterial or mold counts, thereby improving product quality and extending shelf life [138]. The fish gelatin extracted from blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus), k-carrageenan, and extract of pomegranate peels formed a composite emulsion which was applied to Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fillets. The solution was effective in reducing the microbial populations of Cryptophilus, molds, yeasts, and Enterobacteriaceae within 30 days of refrigeration; in addition, TVB-N and TBARS were reduced [139]. A 6% ovalbumin and k-carrageenan mixture maintained the SH content and Ca2+-ATPase activity of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and stabilized the myofibrillar protein structure; in addition, it showed better antioxidant properties at 60 days of freezing. This mixture has the potential to replace traditional freezing agents in the surimi industry [140]. The practical applications of carrageenan are shown in Table 4.

3.2.3. Starch

(1)
Overview of starch
Starch is composed of two main polymer components, amylose (straight-chain) and amylopectin (branched-chain), whose properties and proportions vary depending on the source [141]. The thermal and retrogradation properties of starch are influenced by the branched and straight chains within the starch, which affect the properties of starch-based films. For example, a higher amylose content in starch-based films results in better physical properties [142]. Starch-based food films are typically formed by pouring a starch dispersion onto a smooth surface or mold, which dries to form a film. The polymerization of glucose chains causes starch to gel upon cooling, influencing the physical properties of the resulting film [143].
(2)
Application of starch in animal-derived meat
Composite films formed from starch and natural extracts can improve the material properties, as well as the antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Gallic acid-induced Chinese yam starch mixed with chitosan had excellent mechanical, oxidation resistance, and antibacterial properties, and extended the preservation of pork [144]. Antimicrobial composite films were formed by amylose starch and 2-hydroxypropyl-trimethylammonium chloride chitosan (HTCC). The HTCC/straight-chain starch films had significant bacteriostatic properties, relatively low cytotoxicity, and low UV transmittance, which can enhance the freshness of fresh meat [145]. A composite film of Portulaca oleracea extract with chitosan/starch showed strong antioxidant activity and inhibited lipid oxidation, improving meat preservation and extending its shelf life [83]. Adding 1.25% tea polyphenols to a sodium alginate and corn starch film effectively inhibited the elevation of pH, TVB-N, and TBARS of the stored chicken meat, keeping the chicken meat fresh and prolonging the shelf life [146]. The composite film formed by 1% jicama starch/0.5% chitosan/0.25% glycerol reduced water loss, TBA, and TCA of meat and kept Nile tilapia fillets fresh longer [147]. Composite films made from radish residues, starch, and chitosan inhibited lipid oxidation, proteolysis, and growth of spoilage bacteria in salmon fillets, extending the shelf life by 4 days [148].
Composite films incorporating essential oils and starch films also have good properties. The starch was extracted from the industrial crop Dioscorea zingiberensis C. H. Wright, and oregano essential oil (OEO) was combined with this starch to form a composite film. The mechanical properties, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties of this film were improved. A composite film treated by 3% OEO and starch film showed the strongest antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, and Bacillus subtilis. The composite film significantly reduced the total viable bacterial count of fresh chicken at 4 °C [149]. Cassava starch/sodium carboxymethyl cellulose edible films mixed with Litsea cubeba essential oil had better barrier, texture, and mechanical properties, as well as improved biodegradability, thermal stability, hydrophobicity, biodegradability, and great antimicrobial properties. The addition of 4 mg/mL Litsea cubeba essential oil to the composite film prolonged the shelf life of chicken meat [150]. Polyvinyl alcohol-starch active films incorporated with lemongrass oil effectively hindered the lipid oxidation, growth of fish microorganisms, protein breakdown, and freshness reduction in large yellow croaker [151]. Chitosan nanoparticles incorporated with curcumin into a zein/potato starch film had good mechanical and barrier properties, reduced TBARS and TVB-N, microorganisms, etc., extending the shelf life of Schizothorax prenati fillets by 15 days [152].
Starch films with hybrid nanocomposites are also used in animal-derived meat. Mixing FeO-60 μg/mL and ZnO-40 μg/mL nanoparticles with the tamarind seed starch-based bio-thermoplastic packaging films significantly reduced Lactobacillus lactis, Enterobacteriaceae, and P. aeruginosa in both chicken and mutton meat counts, decreased the total viable bacteria counts, and extended the shelf life [153]. The practical applications of starch are shown in Table 5.

3.3. The Microbial Polysaccharides

Pullulan Polysaccharides

(1)
Overview of Pullulan Polysaccharides
Pullulan polysaccharide is a water-soluble biopolymer with excellent film-forming properties, gas barrier properties, plasticity, non-toxic, harmless, colorless, odorless, non-immunogenic, and non-mutagenic properties [154]. Increasing the pullulan polysaccharide content in a mixture reduces the film’s water vapor permeability [155]. It can be widely used in the development of food packaging materials. Pullulan polysaccharides have several drawbacks, including brittleness, high cost, lack of active functionality, and hydrophilicity. However, combining pullulan with pectin, casein, chitosan, or gelatin can modify these properties. The US Food and Drug Administration has recognized pullulan polysaccharides [156].
Affected by plasticizers, moisture, emulsifiers, and temperature, pullulan-based edible films or coatings are improved by chemical modification. The n-octenyl succinylation of pullulan polysaccharides can effectively enhance the water vapor barrier [157]. As an edible film, lactoferrin is added to the pullulan-based edible film to improve the surface hydrophobicity of pullulan and reduce its water vapor permeability [158]. Pullan polysaccharide edible film improves food quality by adding nanoparticles and essential oils to enhance its antibacterial activity. For example, combining branched starch-based edible film with zinc oxide or essential oil nanoparticles can enhance the safety of processed meat or chilled fresh meat [159]. Green synthetic silver nanoparticles using pullulan polysaccharides are used to preserve meat and other foods through UV treatment [160].
(2)
Application of pullulan polysaccharides in animal-derived meat
Pullulan was hydrolyzed by pullulanase produced by Bacillus megaterium. The hydrolysate of pullulan polysaccharide was applied in ice-stored Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) using film. It was found that 2% and 3% hydrolysates were effective in reducing TBA, TVB-N, conductivity, pH, maintaining moisture and color, and inhibiting bacterial growth [161].
Phenols and essential oils, containing antimicrobial and antioxidant substances, can be combined with pullulan polysaccharides to form a film that covers the surface of the meat and extends the shelf life. Pullulan polysaccharides can also be mixed with other polysaccharides to improve the physical properties of the film. A film composed of pullulan–gelatin and Eugenol Pickering emulsion displayed good barrier and mechanical properties. This film greatly inhibited protein degradation, lipid oxidation, and microbial propagation, making it suitable for both frozen and chilled beef preservation [162]. The pullulan/chitosan/lemon peel polyphenols inhibited bacterial growth and lipid peroxidation, and kept meat fresh longer, for about 6 and 14 days [163]. Chitosan/pullulan/carvacrol film (CS/PU/CAR) greatly decayed the growth of L. monocytogenes, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas putida, E. coli, S. aureus, and Enterobacter cloacae. The strong antimicrobial activity of the CS/PU/CAR film extended the shelf life of goat meat to more than 15 days [164]. The incorporation of cinnamon essential oil-loaded metal-organic frameworks into gelatin/pullulan films had antimicrobial activity. This film hindered moisture loss and bacterial growth, maintained pH, and prolonged the shelf life [165]. Adding marjoram essential oil (MEO) into mung bean protein isolate/pullulan composite films showed effective scavenging of DPPH radicals and good antimicrobial activity. The MEO blended with films for minced beef samples improved oxidative stability and antimicrobial activity [166]. Eugenol oil-loaded chitosan zinc oxide hybrid nanoparticles were mixed into chitosan pullulan polysaccharide by sol-gel technology. The composite film significantly improved the UV line barrier ability, reduced water vapor and oxygen permeability, and increased tensile strength and hydrophobicity. In terms of antibacterial and antioxidant properties, nanocomposite films exhibited excellent antioxidant ability against DPPH free radicals and had high sensitivity to P. aeruginosa and S. aureus, significantly extending the shelf life of chicken stored at 8 ± 2 °C to 5 days [167]. Coaxial electrospinning films were prepared by electrospinning using oregano essential oil, pullulan, and thermoplastic polyurethane as raw materials. The films not only had low tensile strength and dissolution, but also effectively kept the fish fillets fresh longer, which were also used in the manufacture of the fish fillets [168].
GSE nanoparticles prepared by grape seed extract, chitosan, gamma-polyglutamic acid, and PUL coating solution formed a composite film. The 1.08% GSE nanoparticles/PUL coating not only inhibited proteolysis, total bacterial counts, and lipid oxidation in the fish, but also increased protein solubility as well as SOD and GSH, effectively extending the shelf life of salmon fillets [169]. The pullulan/chitosan/ZnONPs/propolis film was used for pork belly packaging. Because this film exhibited great antibacterial activity against foodborne pathogens and antioxidant activity, the total number of aerobic microorganisms and peroxide value were significantly reduced [170]. Beef coated with pullulan-starch nanocrystal films reduced the production of undesirable substances during 7 days at 4 °C [171]. A novel nanofiber film incorporating a chia mucilage protection solution/gum arabic/pullulan/Lactobacillus bulgaricus inhibited E. coli and S aureus and extended the shelf life of beef for 2 days at 4 °C [172].
The pullulan polysaccharide/carboxymethyl chitosan/xanthan gum solution with 3 g/100 mL fish skin collagen solution formed a composite film, which was applied to salmon fillets and stored at −2 °C. The total viable count and TVB-N were found to be among the freshest. It was found that the film reduced the total viable bacterial count, TVB-N, K, and pH, along with reduced actinomycin, total sulfhydryl groups, and Ca2+-ATPase activity. Therefore, this composite film can extend the shelf life of salmon [173]. Ice-glazing using pullulan and bay laurel extract treated Caspian trout (Salmo trutta caspius). It was found to inhibit oxidation as well as the growth of spoilage microorganisms, and maintain color and texture [174]. The practical applications of pullulan are shown in Table 6.

4. Conclusions and Future Prospects

Polysaccharides are mainly used in bioactive packaging materials for animal-derived meat preservation, such as chitosan, and have antibacterial activity, antioxidant activity, inhibitory enzyme activity, and biodegradability. Chitosan effectively blocks oxygen and is beneficial for inhibiting discoloration and lipid oxidation of cold fresh animal-derived meat. However, the antibacterial activity of chitosan can only be demonstrated under weakly acidic conditions and has no activity under physiological pH and alkaline conditions. Hyaluronic acid is widely used for skin health, cell proliferation and differentiation, and tissue repair, and has fewer applications in the preservation of animal-derived meat. Sodium alginate is uniformly transparent, non-toxic, water-soluble, and provides good fat and oxygen barriers. However, its film strength is low. Carrageenan has strong biocompatibility, gelling ability, and ability to combine with other molecules. It is biodegradable, but lacks the physical properties required for mechanical, thermal, and water barrier properties, as well as antibacterial properties. The properties of starch-based films, such as thermal and regenerative properties, are influenced by the internal straight and branched chain lengths and distribution. Pullulan polysaccharides possess excellent film-forming properties, gas barrier properties, plasticity, non-toxic, odorless, non-immunogenic, and non-mutagenic properties. They can be widely used in food packaging materials, but exhibit strong hydrophilicity, brittleness, high cost, and lack active functions. However, these polysaccharides can be combined with other substances, such as essential oils and phenolic substances, or with nanoparticles, to change the properties of the film, enhance antioxidant and antibacterial abilities, improve animal-derived meat quality, and extend shelf life.
The package formed by loading active substances onto polysaccharide films should provide different active packaging and coating processing strategies for different animal-derived meat to improve the application of active packaging and enhance its preservation effect. Future film development should focus on the characteristics of each component and their synergistic effects within the packaging. The potential application of polysaccharides in animal-derived meat preservation has not been fully explored, and more in-depth research is needed to explore their potential in animal-derived meat preservation.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.Y.; methodology, M.Y.; software, M.Y.; validation, M.Y.; formal analysis, M.Y.; investigation, M.Y.; resources, J.M.; data curation, M.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, M.Y.; writing—review and editing, J.M. and J.X.; visualization, J.M. and J.X.; supervision, J.M. and J.X.; project administration, J.M. and J.X.; funding acquisition, J.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2023YFD2401402), Agriculture Research System of China (CARS-47).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available in article. Data are available in a publicly accessible repository.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Main factors (including endogenous enzymes, microbial action, oxidation of proteins and fats) affecting spoilage of animal-derived meat. This figure was created using BioRender.com.
Figure 1. Main factors (including endogenous enzymes, microbial action, oxidation of proteins and fats) affecting spoilage of animal-derived meat. This figure was created using BioRender.com.
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Figure 2. The process of chitosan synthesis. This figure was created using BioRender.com.
Figure 2. The process of chitosan synthesis. This figure was created using BioRender.com.
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Figure 3. Application of films or coatings formed by chitosan with different substances in animal-derived meat. This figure was created using BioRender.com.
Figure 3. Application of films or coatings formed by chitosan with different substances in animal-derived meat. This figure was created using BioRender.com.
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Figure 4. Sodium alginate film with other substances for animal-derived meat preservation. This figure was created using BioRender.com.
Figure 4. Sodium alginate film with other substances for animal-derived meat preservation. This figure was created using BioRender.com.
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Table 1. The practical applications of chitosan.
Table 1. The practical applications of chitosan.
Handling MethodMeatEffectsReferences
Chitosan derivativesChitosan fructose MRPsBeefProlong the shelf life of beef during freezing through excellent antioxidant properties[69]
Chitosan glucose complexLambProlong the shelf life of lamb
Increase the shelf life of pork cocktail Italian sausages		[70]
A novel chitosan with arginine functionalizationPork cocktail Italian sausagesInhibit pathogenic E. coli O157 in chicken juice
Reduce the odor of the treated chicken juice		[71]
A composite nano-film made from 0.6% chitosan and 0.1% nisinFish sausageReduce TVB-N, TBARS, and pH
Maintain the color		[77]
Chitosan nanoparticlesCitrus essential oil incorporated into chitosan nanoparticlesChickenInhibit S. aureus and E. coli and the formation of biofilm
Change the morphology of the cell membrane
Destroy mature biofilm		[74]
Biomass-derived nanoparticle (nanocellulose, nanohemicellulose, and nanolignin)-reinforced chitosan filmsGoatImprove tensile strength, elongation properties, water, and UV barrier properties, as well as enhanced antioxidant and antimicrobial activities[27]
Polycaprolactone-based electrospun membranes, combined with cinnamaldehyde chitosan nanoparticlesPorkReduce the microbial content, TBA, TVB-N, and pH
Prolong the shelf life		[76]
Cinnamaldehyde, chitosan nanoparticles, and 2% chitosan filmBurgersInhibit the growth of Listeria[73]
Chitosan Composite with Other SubstancesThe zinc ion chelation is evenly distributed on the surface of the sodium alginate and carboxymethyl chitosan composite filmChickenHave good antibacterial and waterproof properties[82]
Chitosan starch composite film with purslane addedDuckReduce the content of TBA reactants and volatile base nitrogen
Inhibit the oxidation of meat		[83]
Chitosan coatings with physical treatmentsPorkDecrease carbonyl concentration, Enterobacteriaceae bacteria, total viable bacteria and, the proportion of four main spoilage organisms[87]
Chitosan/bacterial cellulose-based films loaded with tea polyphenol-loaded chitosan-coated nanoliposomesChubImprove elongation at break, thermal stability, and tea polyphenol stability[81]
Chitosan-PLA plastic filmsGrouper filletsIncrease in water vapor transmission rate and moisture content
Decrease in bacterial content and TVB-N
Extended the shelf life		[84]
Nisin and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid to chitosan-polylactic acid composite filmGrouper filletsImprove the antimicrobial activity and inhibit the number of thermophilic bacteria and spoilage bacteria, as well as TVB-N
Extended the freshness of grouper fillets		[10]
Chlorogenic acid and chitosan coating composite filmSnakehead fish filletsRetard the oxidation of TCA, TBARS, and proteins in the fillets
Better preserves the odor and color of the fillets		[85]
Gelatine from salmon fish bone, chitosan, gallic acid, and clove oil composite filmSalmon fish filletsHave good antibacterial and antioxidant activity
Extend the shelf life by at least 5 days		[86]
Table 2. The practical applications of hyaluronic acid.
Table 2. The practical applications of hyaluronic acid.
Handling MethodMeatEffectsReference
0.9% Hyaluronic acidCrucian carpSlow down the degradation of fish quality
Inhibit the production of TVB-N and TBA, and extend the shelf life		[92]
0.9% Hyaluronic acidCarp (Cyprinus carpio)Delay the increase in conductivity, TBARS, TVB-N, and pH
Maintain meat water-holding capacity
Prolong shelf life		[93]
0.9% Hyaluronic acid and 2% β-conglycininSilver carp filletDelay the increase of TBARS, TVB-N, pH, conductivity, and TCA soluble peptide content of silver carp meat
Reduce the loss of water holding capacity of the fish		[96]
Hyaluronic acid smart antimicrobial nanofiber treatmentBeefDecay the growth of E. coli
Prolong the shelf life		[97]
Table 3. The practical applications of sodium alginate.
Table 3. The practical applications of sodium alginate.
Handling MethodMeatEffectsReference
1.5% Sodium alginateLarge yellow croakerLower pH, TVB-N, and TBA, and good sensory properties
Extend shelf life up to 29 days		[102]
Alginate coatingFrozen chicken legsHinder the number of microorganisms
Improve oxidative stability		[103]
Alginate coating with lauryl arginineFrozen chicken legsReduce the number of microorganisms
Improve oxidative stability
Improve the antibacterial efficiency		[103]
Alginate coatings with hydroxyapatite/quercetin glucoside complexesFresh chicken filletInhibit the growth of spoilage bacteria
Inhibit TVB-N		[104]
Konjac glucan and sodium alginate, loaded with thymol and epsilon-poly-L-lysine hydrochloride, formed composite films.Salmon filletsIncrease Ca2+-ATPase activity, myofibrillar protein solubility, and sulfhydryl content
Decrease myofibrillar protein carbonyl content, surface hydrophobicity, and prolong shelf life		[105]
2% sodium alginate/antimicrobial 1:10 protein solutionSturgeonInhibit microbial growth, reduce TVB-N
Reduce nucleotide catabolism
Retard lipid oxidation and protein degradation in fish fillets
Maintain sensory quality		[106]
The grass carps were treated by L. paracasei H9 and then coated with 1% sodium alginateGrass carp Reduce TVB-N, TBA, and total bacterial counts
Maintain a better sensory evaluation of grass carp		[107]
Oregano essential oil and β-cyclodextrin of Sodium alginate edible coatingChicken breast meatExtend the shelf life[108]
Sodium alginate-loaded rosemary essential oilMutton burgersInhibit Pseudomonas, Enterobacteriaceae, and lactic acid bacteria
Delay lipid oxidation
Extend the shelf life		[110]
Rosemary essential oil loaded with sodium alginateMutton burger pattiesExtend the shelf life
Maintain sensory properties
Improve the antibacterial and antioxidant activities		[111]
Agar sodium alginate double layer antibacterial film mixed with ginger essential oilBeefDelay the protein breakdown and lipid oxidation of beef
Inhibit the growth of S. aureus, E. coli, and fungi
Maintain the freshness of beef
Extend the shelf life 		[112]
Loading cinnamon essential oil and nisin into edible sodium alginate coatingBeefDelay bacterial growth and protein degradation
Result in the lowest pH value and low volatile base nitrogen value
Reduce the growth of microorganisms
Extend the shelf life
A coating with low permeability to water vapor, low water loss, stable color brightness, and good sensory value		[113]
Adding tea polyphenols to the network formed by sodium alginate konjac glucomannanBeefImprove the mechanical properties of the film
Improve resistance to water vapor and light
Improve antibacterial and antioxidant activities and stability
Inhibit the growth of S. aureus		[115]
Epigallocatechin gallate ester was added to sodium alginateFresh porkInhibit microbial growth and lipid oxidation
Reduce weight loss in pork samples
Protect their color
Improve the odor, color, and overall acceptance of the meat
Extend the storage period of pork		[116]
Sodium alginate with anthocyaninsChicken willowDecrease nitrogen content, pH value, and TBA index
Inhibit the number of coagulase-positive S. aureus and the total number of microorganisms
Improve the chemical, microbial, and texture characteristics		[117]
Sodium alginate-konjac glucomannan films with anthocyaninsBeef and fishExtend the shelf life[119]
Root bark tannins in sodium alginate/polyethylene oxide mixed nanofibersChickenDecrease the number of S. enteritidis
Extend the shelf life without affecting sensory quality		[120]
Polyvinyl alcohol-sodium alginate-alizarin and a layer with polyvinylidene fluoride-vanillinPorkIndicating color changes from yellow to purple with the naked eye and the color changes check pork freshness
Decrease E. coli and S. aureus
Extend the pork shelf life		[121]
The double cross-linked water gel adsorption pad formed by sodium alginate and crab shell powder has good compatibility with cinnamaldehydePorkHave good antibacterial ability
Absorb the exudates from the meat inside the substrate
Avoid reverse osmosis caused by compression or dumping
Slow down the rise of pork pH, protein oxidation,
Inhibit microbial growth
Reduce juice loss rate
Seal the exuded juice
Reduce the production of specific volatile substances.
Extend the shelf life		[122]
A composite film composed of alginate and nano-SiO2Grass carpReduce the production of malondialdehyde and TBARS
Reduce the increase in pH, and the total bacterial count
Extend the shelf life of grass carp fish		[123]
Table 4. The practical applications of carrageenan.
Table 4. The practical applications of carrageenan.
Handling MethodMeatEffectsReference
Gelatin/carrageenan/corn protein/turmeric essential oil composite filmChickenExtend the shelf life
Improve the biological activity
Demonstrate strong antibacterial activity		[126]
k-carrageenan/konjac glucomannan hydrogel film loaded with Salmonella bacteriophage ChickenImprove food safety
Prevent Salmonella contamination		[127]
Semi-refined k-carrageenan and germinated fenugreek seed water extractionChicken breast meatInhibit reproduction of microorganisms
Have great potential for application in active food packaging		[128]
Semi-refined iota-carrageenan/cassava starch incorporated with SiO2-ZnO nanoparticlesChickenKeep minced chicken fresh for longer[129]
Encapsulating benzyl isothiocyanate in the carrier beta-cyclodextrin/k-carrageenanChicken breastsLower the total viable count[130]
k-carrageenan composite honey extract film, water-alcohol extract of honey, and bee pollenBeefHave antibacterial and antioxidant activities
Inhibit lipid oxidation and microbial growth and reproduction		[131]
ZIF-8/Carrageenan BeefReduce the growth of microorganisms and oxidation of lipids[132]
k-carrageenan/carboxymethyl cellulose nanofibers/phytic acidPorkDelay browning and dehydration, reduce oxidation, inhibit bacterial growth, and completely inhibit the antibacterial rate of S. aureus and E. coli[133]
k-carrageenan coating with cinnamon essential oil PorkRetard the growth of total viable count, reduce lipid oxidation, and maintain the color of the sample[134]
Gelatin/k-carrageenan/triple-helix/tannic acid with phenolic hydroxyl groupsPorkMaintaining the temperature of refrigerated meat during brief periods of high temperatures[135]
Sodium alginate and carrageenan composite films incorporated with peanut shell flavonoids PorkKeep pork fresh longer[136]
Add olive leaf extract to carrageenan-based active packaging filmLambHave an antimicrobial capacity and increase the shelf life[137]
Virgin coconut oil nanoemulsion, iota carrageenan, and alginatex formed a composite filmPindang (mildly salted cooked) fish productsNo change in the number of bacteria and molds present
Improve the quality of the product
Extend the shelf life		[138]
Fish gelatin, k-carrageenan, and extract of pomegranate peels formed a composite emulsionNile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) filletsReduce the microbial populations of Cryptophilus, molds, yeasts, and Enterobacteriaceae[139]
A 6% ovalbumin and k-carrageenan mixtureGrass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)Maintain the SH content and Ca2+-ATPase activity
Stabilize the myofibrillar protein structure
Have better antioxidant properties		[140]
Table 5. The practical applications of starch.
Table 5. The practical applications of starch.
Handling MethodMeatEffectsReference
Gallic acid-induced Chinese yam starch and chitosanPorkHave excellent mechanical, oxidation resistance, and antibacterial properties
Extend the preservation		[144]
Amylose starch and 2-hydroxypropyl-trimethylammonium chloride chitosan (HTCC)MeatHave significant bacteriostatic properties, relatively low cytotoxicity, and low UV transmittance
Enhance the freshness of fresh meat		[145]
Portulaca oleracea extract is mixed with chitosan/starch to form a composite filmMeatHave good antioxidant activity
Inhibit lipid oxidation
Have better preservation and prolong the shelf life		[83]
1.25% Tea polyphenol added to sodium alginate and corn-starchChicken meatInhibited the elevation of TVB-N, TBARS, and pH of the stored chicken meat
Prolong the shelf life 		[146]
0.5% Chitosan/1% Jicama starch/0.25% glycerolNile tilapia filletsReduce water loss, TBA, and TCA of meat
Keep the fillets fresh longer		[147]
Radish residues with starch and chitosanSalmon filletsInhibit lipid oxidation, proteolysis, and growth of spoilage bacteria
Extend the shelf life by 4 days		[148]
A composite film treated by 3% OEO and starch filmFresh chickenHave antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, and S. aureus
Reduce the total viable bacterial count at 4 °C storage condition		[149]
Cassava starch/sodium carboxymethyl cellulose edible films fortified with Litsea cubeba essential oilChicken meatHave better barrier, texture, and mechanical properties
Improve biodegradability, thermal stability, hydrophobicity, biodegradability, and strong antimicrobial properties
Extend the shelf life		[150]
Polyvinyl alcohol-starch active films incorporated with lemongrass oilLarge yellow croakerInhibit the growth of fish microorganisms and lipid oxidation
Delay protein breakdown and freshness reduction		[151]
A zein/potato starch film based on chitosan nanoparticles incorporated with curcuminSchizothorax Prenati filletsExtend the shelf by 15 days[152]
Mixing ZnO-40 μg/mL; FeO-60 μg/mL nanoparticles with the tamarind seed starch-based bio-thermoplastic packaging filmsMutton and chicken meatReduce the L. lactis, Enterobacteriaceae, and P. aeruginosa
Reduce the total viable bacteria counts
Extend the shelf life		[153]
Table 6. The practical applications of pullulan.
Table 6. The practical applications of pullulan.
Handing MethodsMeatEffectsReference
The hydrolysate of pullulan polysaccharideNile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)Reduce TBA, TVB-N, conductivity, and pH
Maintain moisture and color
Inhibit bacterial growth		[161]
Pullulan–gelatin and Eugenol Pickering emulsionBeefInhibit protein degradation, lipid oxidation, and microbial propagation[162]
The pullulan/chitosan/lemon peel polyphenolsMeatIncrease bacterial lag phase
Reduce lipid peroxidation
Extend the shelf life		[163]
Chitosan/pullulan/carvacrol filmGoatExhibit satisfying antibacterial activity against the common bacteria in chilled meat
Extend the shelf life of goat meat by more than 15 days		[164]
The incorporation of cinnamon essential oil-loaded metal-organic frameworks into gelatin/pullulan filmsMeatInhibit bacterial growth
Reduce moisture loss and maintain the pH
Extend the shelf life of meat preserved		[165]
Adding marjoram essential oil (MEO) into mung bean protein isolate (MPI)/pullulan (PU) composite filmsBeefFacilitate DPPH radical scavenging
Improve antimicrobial activity
Increase the oxidative stability of minced meat		[166]
The eugenol oil-loaded chitosan zinc oxide hybrid nanoparticles mix with chitosan pullulan polysaccharideChicken meatImprove the UV line barrier ability, reduce its water vapor and oxygen permeability, and increase its tensile strength and hydrophobicity
Exhibit excellent antioxidant ability against DPPH free radicals
Have high sensitivity to P. aeruginosa and S. aureus
Extend the shelf life		[167]
Oregano essential oil, pullulan, and thermoplastic polyurethane formed coaxial electrospinning films by electrospinningFish filletsHave low tensile strength and dissolution, and are effective in retarding the films
Keep the fish fillets fresh longer		[168]
GSE nanoparticles, gamma-polyglutamic acid, and PUL coating solutionSalmon filletsInhibit proteolysis, total bacterial counts, and lipid oxidation in the fish
Increase protein solubility
Improve the shelf life		[169]
Pullulan/chitosan/ZnONPs/propolis filmPorkExhibit good antioxidant activity and excellent antibacterial activity against foodborne pathogens
Reduce peroxide value and the total number of aerobic microorganisms 		[170]
Pullulan-starch nanocrystals filmsBeefReduce the production of undesirable substances[171]
Chia mucilage protection solution/gum Arabic/pullulan/L. bulgaricusBeefInhibit E. coli and S. aureus
Extend the shelf life		[172]
The pullulan polysaccharide/carboxymethyl chitosan/xanthan gum solution with 3 g/100 mL fish skin collagen solution formed a composite filmSalmon filletsReduce the total viable bacterial count, TVB-N, K, and pH
Reduce actinomycin, total sulfhydryl groups, and Ca2+-ATPase activity
Extend the shelf life		[173]
Ice-glazing using pullulan and bay laurel extractCaspian trout (Salmo trutta caspius)Inhibit oxidation and the growth of spoilage microorganisms
Maintain color and texture		[174]
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Yuan, M.; Mei, J.; Xie, J. Research Progress on Polysaccharide Composite Films and Coatings with Antioxidant and Antibacterial Ingredients to Extend the Shelf Life of Animal-Derived Meat. Coatings 2024, 14, 1338. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14101338

AMA Style

Yuan M, Mei J, Xie J. Research Progress on Polysaccharide Composite Films and Coatings with Antioxidant and Antibacterial Ingredients to Extend the Shelf Life of Animal-Derived Meat. Coatings. 2024; 14(10):1338. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14101338

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yuan, Ming, Jun Mei, and Jing Xie. 2024. "Research Progress on Polysaccharide Composite Films and Coatings with Antioxidant and Antibacterial Ingredients to Extend the Shelf Life of Animal-Derived Meat" Coatings 14, no. 10: 1338. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14101338

APA Style

Yuan, M., Mei, J., & Xie, J. (2024). Research Progress on Polysaccharide Composite Films and Coatings with Antioxidant and Antibacterial Ingredients to Extend the Shelf Life of Animal-Derived Meat. Coatings, 14(10), 1338. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14101338

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