Plant-Parasitic Nematodes Associated with Potato Production and Current Management Trends: A Systematic Review (2016–2025)

Abstract

Potato is the third most important food crop in the world after maize and rice. Its importance stems from its contribution to food security in most parts of the world. Although the crop is widely cultivated globally, it faces numerous biotic and abiotic challenges, among which plant-parasitic nematodes pose a significant threat. The objective of the study is to map the nematode species affecting potato crops while drawing links with their pervasiveness and outlining effective control strategies. The article selection process followed the PRISMA guidelines. A total of 41 articles were selected for the review from an initial 944 records retrieved from the Web of Science, Scopus, CAB Abstract, and reference list based on their relevance to the study criteria. The findings indicate that G. pallida, G. rostochiensis, M. incognita and M. javanica were the most reported nematodes globally. Chemical and biological control remain the most widely used management strategies, while incorporating resistant cultivars, abiotic inducers, organic fertilizers, and crop rotation offers greater potential to enhance the sustainability and resilience of farming systems. A significant global research gap persists in nematode surveillance and diagnostic surveys of potato-growing regions.

1. Introduction

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the world’s third most important food crop after maize (Zea mays L.) and rice (Oryza sativa) [1,2]. This is mainly due to its contribution towards the food security of most societies in the world [3]. The crop is a profitable, nutritious staple food that provides essential nutrients for survival. For example, Acharya [4] reported that farmers harvested up to 31,300 kg of potatoes and generated around USD 9390 in a single season, showing the significant economic returns from potato production. It has the following nutrient composition: starch, protein, lipids, dietary fiber, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, vitamin C, vitamin B6, chlorogenic acid, and glycoalkaloids [5,6]. Its high adaptability, high yield potential per unit area, rich nutrient content, and versatility of use are the main drivers of the expansion of potato production worldwide [7]. Although the crop is widely grown, it faces numerous biotic and abiotic factors that threaten potato production and may have serious implications for global food systems, among which are plant-parasitic nematodes that cause detrimental effects on yield and tuber quality.

Nematodes are among the most significant microscopic animals in the animal kingdom, capable of surviving in various environments [8,9]. Among them are plant-parasitic nematodes, which are significant biotic stressors in crop production [10,11]. These nematodes cause significant economic losses by reducing crop quality and yield [12,13]. According to Phani et al. [14], the survival, reproduction, and population growth of plant-parasitic nematodes are influenced by specific biotic and abiotic factors. These include the consistent presence of optimal temperatures (25–30 °C) and soil moisture (minimum of 10%), a continuous supply of suitable hosts with limited genetic diversity, and reduced exposure to extreme environmental conditions such as drought and high temperatures. Collectively, these factors can lead to a significant increase in nematode population density, often exceeding threshold levels within a short time frame [14].

Plants affected by nematodes show symptoms such as yellowing leaves (chlorosis), wilting, galling of roots and tubers, stunted growth, and root damage. These symptoms are similar to those caused by nutrient deficiencies, such as nitrogen, highlighting the need to do tests to verify the source of symptoms [15]. Damaged roots hinder the uptake of water and nutrients, leading to stunted plants and leaf chlorosis [16]. Nematodes can physically damage tubers, leading to deformities, smaller sizes, fewer tubers, and small lesions and blemishes on their surfaces, making them unmarketable [17].

Despite the challenges, effective control strategies for nematodes include using resistant crop varieties, implementing cultural practices, applying nematicides, and employing biological control agents [18]. Knowledge about the prevention and control of plant pests is crucial to preventing their introduction and spread within a country [19]. However, information on the global distribution of key plant-parasitic nematode species in potatoes, and on how different management strategies are currently being deployed remains fragmented and uneven across regions. In particular, there is a lack of comprehensive syntheses that integrate recent evidence on nematode incidence and management practices in potato production.

To address these gaps, we formulated the following guiding research question: Which plant-parasitic nematodes are associated with potato production, and what are the current management trends? Therefore, the objective is to determine the key nematode species that are devastating to potato production globally and to identify effective control strategies. Nematode species distribution and management strategies are closely interconnected. The dominant plant-parasitic nematode species in each region determines both the magnitude of yield losses and which control options are agronomically and economically feasible. Mapping the global distribution of key nematode species in potato production, therefore, provides essential context for evaluating current management practices and identifying where particular strategies are being applied, underused, or absent.

2. Materials and Methods

The systematic review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [20], and the completed PRISMA checklist is provided in Supplementary Table S1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria (

Table 1. A summary of the inclusion and exclusion criteria used during the selection of studies for this systematic review.

Criterion	Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
Language	Articles published in English	Articles that are not published in English
Timeline	Articles published between 2016 up to the current year.	Articles published before 2016
Article type	All research published in peer-reviewed journals. Articles	All non-peer-reviewed journals. Conference papers, editorial material, book chapters
Nematode types	Research that focuses on plant-parasitic nematodes	Research that does not focus on plant-parasitic nematodes
Study design	Field trials, Greenhouse experiments	Soil surveys and interviews
Intervention	Studies examining management strategies for nematode infestations in potatoes.	Studies not examining management strategies for nematode infestations in potatoes.

) were defined based on the relevance of the studies to the study objective. A review protocol was prepared prior to conducting the searches; however, it was not prospectively registered in a public repository.

2.1. Data Sources and Literature Search Strategies

The search was conducted on electronic databases, including Scopus, CAB Abstract, and Web of Science. These databases are well-known academic platforms, valued for their wide range of content and high-quality indexing. They offer access to numerous peer-reviewed articles, making them trusted and reliable sources for academic research. To source information, the following search terms were used: “Potato” OR “Solanum tuberosum” OR “tuber crop” AND “nematode” OR “plant-parasitic nematodes” OR “Globodera” OR “Meloidogyne” OR “root-knot nematode” OR “cyst nematode” AND “nematode management strategies” OR “Integrated nematode management” OR “Nematode control methods” OR “Nematode mitigation approaches”.

Scopus search string: TITLE-ABS-KEY ((“potato” OR “Solanum tuberosum” OR “tuber crop”) AND (“nematod*” OR “plant-parasitic nematod*” OR “Globodera” OR “Meloidogyne” OR “root-knot nematod*” OR “cyst nematode”) AND (“strategies” OR “Integrated nematode management” OR “ control” OR “mitigation” OR “resistance”)) AND PUBYEAR > 2015 AND PUBYEAR < 2026 AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ar”) OR LIMIT- TO (DOCTYPE, “ch”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, “English”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, “ENVI”) OR LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, “AGRI”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (OA, “all”)).

Web of science search string: TS = ((“potato” OR “Solanum tuberosum” OR “tuber crop”) AND (“nematode” OR “Globodera” OR “Meloidogyne” OR “root-knot nematode” OR “cyst nematode”) AND (“nematode management strategies” OR “Integrated nematode management” OR “Nematode control methods” OR “Nematode mitigation approaches”)).

CAB Abstract search string: Search: (“potato*” OR “Solanum tuberosum”) AND (“plant parasitic nematode*” OR “plant-parasitic nematode*” OR nematod*) AND (manag* OR control* OR “integrated pest management” OR IPM OR nematicide* OR biofumigation OR biocontrol OR “biological control” OR resist* OR rotation OR sanitation).

2.2. Selection Criteria

Exclusion and Inclusion Criteria

Language: Only articles published in English were included in this review. This criterion was used because English is the dominant language in scientific publishing, ensuring that all selected studies could be accurately interpreted without translation bias. Articles published in other languages were excluded due to potential limitations in reliable translation and interpretation.

Timeline: The review considered studies published between 2016 and 2025. This time frame was selected to ensure that the review reflects recent studies and current knowledge on plant-parasitic nematodes and their management in potato production. Recent literature also improves the relevance of the findings to current agricultural practices and research trends.

Article type: Only peer-reviewed articles were included in the review. Peer-reviewed publications undergo rigorous evaluation by experts in the field, helping ensure their credibility, reliability, and scientific quality.

Nematode types: Studies were included if they focused on plant-parasitic nematodes associated with potato production, as these organisms directly infect plant roots and can significantly reduce potato growth and yield.

Study design: Field trials and greenhouse experiments were included because they enabled the evaluation of nematode impact and the effectiveness of management strategies on potato crops. Studies based only on soil surveys or interviews were excluded because they mainly provide descriptive information and do not experimentally test nematode management strategies.

Intervention: Studies examining management strategies for controlling nematode infestations in potatoes were included in the review.

2.3. Data Collection and Management

Data was screened and extracted from the selected articles. The search process involved reviewing the titles and abstracts of retrieved papers. Further analysis was conducted by reviewing the full texts of retrieved papers to assess their relevance to the study, using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria (Table 1). Data collected and extracted from full-text articles include publication year, region, nematode species, management strategies, and primary research findings.

Microsoft Excel Version 2605 was used to manage and organize the extracted information obtained from databases. The data from the two databases were first exported to Microsoft Excel and differentiated using three colors for each database. The records were sorted in alphabetical order, duplicates removed, and stored in a separate sheet designated for duplicates. A new sheet, free of duplicates, was created for further screening. The articles were first screened by title and abstract, and those that met the inclusion criteria were copied to a new sheet. This was followed by full-text screening, after which another sheet was created to store the articles that met the inclusion criteria. The studies that remained after full-text screening were compiled into a separate sheet, where the relevant data, such as publication year, region, objectives, nematode species, and management strategies and findings, were extracted and recorded.

2.4. Risk of Bias Assessment

The methodological quality of all included studies was evaluated using the Crowe Critical Appraisal Tool V1.4. The tool assesses studies across multiple domains, namely the preliminary section, introduction, study design, planting procedures, data collection methods, ethical considerations, outcomes, and discussion, each scored from 0 (no evidence) to 5 (strongest evidence), yielding a total score of 0 to 40. Two reviewers independently rated each study; discrepancies were resolved through discussion and, if necessary, consultation with a third reviewer. We did not exclude studies solely based on their CCAT score. Instead, we used the total and domain-level scores to describe overall study quality and to judge the confidence placed in individual study findings in the narrative synthesis.

2.5. Data Extraction and Data Synthesis

Electronic records were retrieved from two databases: Scopus (n = 201), Web of Science (n = 173), and CAB Abstract (n = 567), yielding 941 records. An additional 3 records were identified by screening the reference lists of relevant articles, bringing the total to 944 before duplicates were removed. Of these 944 records, 206 were duplicates, leaving 738 unique records for title and abstract screening. During this stage, 565 records were excluded for failing to meet the inclusion criteria (Table 1). The remaining 173 articles were assessed in full text, and 132 were excluded for failing to meet the inclusion criteria. As a result, 41 studies were included in the final review. The studies that remained after full-text screening were compiled into a separate sheet, where the relevant data, such as publication year, region, objectives, nematode species, and management strategies and findings, were extracted and recorded.

Data extraction was performed by one reviewer, and the extraction was then checked by a second reviewer for completeness, consistency, and eligibility against the predefined inclusion criteria. Any queries or uncertainties were discussed, and a final decision was reached together. The included studies were highly heterogeneous with respect to design (field, greenhouse), interventions and application rates, outcome measures (e.g., different nematode indices, plant growth parameters, and planting times), potato cultivars, and nematode species. Because these differences precluded the calculation of comparable effect sizes across studies, we did not conduct a formal meta-analysis and instead used a structured narrative synthesis (Figure 1).

3. Results

3.1. Global Publication Trends

As shown in Figure 2, the annual number of eligible studies on potato nematode management from 2016 to 2025. The tallest bars occur in 2016 (8 studies) and 2017 (7 studies), followed by a much shorter bar in 2018 (2 studies) and moderate bars in 2019 and 2020 (3 and 4 studies). There is no bar for 2021, indicating that no studies from that year met the inclusion criteria. From 2022 onwards, the bar heights increase again, with 5 studies in 2022, 6 in 2023, and a peak of 7 in 2024, before declining to a shorter bar representing 2 studies in 2025. Overall, the bar graph shows fluctuating but generally rising research activity over time, with the greatest concentration of studies in the later years of the review period.

3.2. Geographic Distribution of Included Studies

The geographic distribution of the 41 studies was highly uneven, as shown in Figure 3. Egypt (7 studies) and Russia (5 studies) emerged as major evidence hubs, whereas most other countries contributed only one or two studies each. African research was dominated by Egypt, with smaller contributions from Kenya, South Africa, Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria, while in the Americas, the United States and Brazil accounted for all identified studies. Europe and Asia were represented by isolated studies from several countries (e.g., Italy, France, the Netherlands, India, Iran, Turkey, Indonesia), indicating that evidence for potato–nematode management is geographically fragmented and concentrated in a few key regions rather than globally uniform.

3.3. Study Quality Based on CCAT Total Scores

Study quality was appraised using the Crowe Critical Appraisal Tool (CCAT) for all included studies (

Table 2. A summary of study quality based on CCAT total scores.

Metric	Value
Number of included studies (CCAT assessed)	41
CCAT total score range (out of 40)	23–35
CCAT percentage range (%)	58–88
Mean CCAT percentage (%)	79
Studies classified as high quality (≥75%)	30
Studies classified as moderate quality 50–74%	11
Studies classified as low quality (<50%)	0

). Total CCAT scores ranged from 23 to 35 out of 40, corresponding to 58–88% of the maximum possible score. Overall, the mean CCAT percentage was approximately 79%, indicating generally moderate to high methodological quality across the evidence base. Based on our predefined thresholds, 30 studies (71%) were classified as high quality (≥75%), while the remaining 11 studies (29%) were classified as moderate quality (50–74%); no studies were classified as low quality (<50%). These findings suggest that, although some methodological limitations were present, particularly in a subset of studies, most of the evidence included in this review was of reasonably robust quality.

Table 3. Main findings on the impact of nematode infestations on potato production.

Management Strategies	Publication Year	Region	Objectives	Nematode Species	Findings	CCAT Score (%)	Reference
Biological control	2025	Africa, Kenya	To evaluate the efficacy of a lignocellulose fibre matrix (banana paper) either impregnated with a chemical or drenched with a biologically based nematicide for the management of root-knot nematodes on potatoes, in Kenya.	Meloidogyne incognita	Banana fibre “Wrap & Plant” sheets loaded with abamectin or drenched with T. asperellum provided targeted delivery to the rhizosphere and significantly reduced RKN reproduction factor and soil Pf while improving potato growth and tuber yield compared with untreated farmer practice; performance was comparable to or better than soil drench with abamectin or Trichoderma alone, showing the matrix can enhance efficacy and persistence of both a chemical nematicide and a fungal antagonist.	33 (83)	[21]
	2024	Africa, Egypt	To evaluate the efficacy of Aspergillus flavus, an entophyte fungus isolated from Trigonella foenum-graecum seeds, against Meloidogyne incognita.	Meloidogyne incognita	100% A. flavus filtrate caused 97.7% J2 mortality, 95.3% J2 reduction in soil, and 90% gall reduction; 41.7% shoot length increase; defense enzymes upregulated.	35 (88)	[22]
	2024	Europe, France	Examined the effect of exogenous soil application of crude root exudates from host plants on the population densities of two cyst nematode species, G. pallida and H. carotae, under field conditions in two different periods, autumn and spring seasons.	Globodera pallida	G. pallida: 72–83% hatch (autumn); H. carotae: 54% hatch (spring after repeated application); no effect in spring for G. pallida due to low soil moisture	35 (88)	[23]
	2023	Africa, Egypt	Investigated the effects of Trichoderma viride (Tv) and T. virens (Tvr) as antifungal agents individually or combined with pomegranate peel aqueous extract (PP) on. M. incognita infesting potato cv. Spunta.	Meloidogyne incognita	Tv and Tvr (solo) reduced J2s by 83.7% and 78.7%; increased tuber weight by 176.4% and 290.2%, respectively; combined treatments (e.g., Tv + PP) had antagonistic effects and lower efficacy; PP alone also effective (52.2% J2 reduction)	33 (83)	[24]
	2023	Africa, Morocco	To evaluate the potential effect of P. aeruginosa on the population density of G. pallida., especially on eggs, juveniles (J2) and cysts in vitro and the efficacy in vivo to control the nematode on the susceptible potato variety ‘Desiree’.	Globodera pallida	In vitro: 42% egg and 56–58% J2 reduction at 108 CFU/mL; In vivo: 33.3% RNC, 650 g increase in tuber weight, 19.2 cm increase in plant height	30 (75)	[25]
	2023	Europe, UK	To determine the impact of a commercial AMF inoculant on the native Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) community	Globodera pallida	AMF improved tolerance at low PCN densities (≤15 eggs/g); Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi increased PCN fitness (cyst and egg production); tolerance was lost at high PCN densities; Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi inoculation improved tuber size but not total yield	35 (88)	[26]
	2022	Africa, Egypt	To assess the efficacy of compost singly or in combination with the Egyptian entomopathogenic nematode (EPN), Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, and the two bacterial isolates (Bacilluscereus Nem 212 and Nem 213) against M. incognita, infecting potato plants under field conditions.	Meloidogyne incognita	Compost + Bacilluscereus Nem 213 (T7) showed 79.4% J2 reduction, 21.2% yield increase; T5 (Nem 212) had 77.3% root-stage reduction, 206.8% yield increase; compost alone = 66.4% J2 reduction	29 (73)	[27]
	2022	Asia, Indonesia	To evaluate the bionematicide and its effectiveness in controlling Globodera rostochiensis.	Globodera rostochiensis	The bionematicide also reduced the number of cysts and the number of female nematodes in the field. The most effective and recommended bionematicide concentration was 4% for every 100 mL in each plant.	35 (88)	[28]
	2022	Europe, Ireland	To evaluate the efficacy of two microbial fermentation products (MFPs) from Alltech—MFP5075, a proprietary blend containing bacterial fermentation media and a copper component, and MFP3048, a microbial-based product, against the potato cyst nematode Globodera rostochiensis.	Globodera rostochiensis	In plant infestation studies, treatment with MFP3048 and MFP5075 caused 90.6 and 84.9 percent reduction in PCN infestation, respectively, in terms of cysts developed on roots compared to the untreated control.	35 (88)	[29]
	2022	North America, Canada	To evaluate the effect of biofumigation on the population density of Pratylenchus spp. and Verticillium spp., Potato Early Dying (PED) severity and potato tuber yield under rain-fed potato production in Eastern Canada.	Pratylenchus spp.	Biofumigation significantly reduced RLN (by 25–55%) but not Verticilliumdahliae; fumigation suppressed both, but the effect on Verticilliumdahliae was short-lived; biofumigation improved yield in Trial A but not in Trial B (due to drought).	34 (85)	[30]
	2020	Asia, Iran	To screen the chitinolytic ability of fungi isolated from Globodera rostochiensis and to evaluate their biocontrol potential.	Globodera rostochiensis	Among 154 fungal isolates from PCN eggs, 10 with highest chitinase activity were selected; species such as Beauveria bassiana, Lecanicillium muscarium, Paecilomyces sp. and Trichoderma atroviride showed the greatest chitinase activities; L. muscarium gave the highest parasitism of eggs/J2 in vitro, while T. atroviride and B. bassiana produced the highest root dry weight and tuber yield and reduced cyst numbers in greenhouse experiments, and chitinase activity correlated well with biocontrol potential.	30 (75)	[31]
	2017	Africa, Tunisia	To evaluate the biocontrol potential of indigenous strains of Verticillium. leptobactrum and a commercial formulation of Purpureocillium lilacinum against single and concomitant infestations of Meloidogyne javanica and Globodera pallida and to assess their impact on potato crops.	Meloidogyne javanica and Globodera pallida	The incorporation of each fungus alone into the soil significantly increased the growth parameters. The results also revealed that the application of Purpureocillium lilacinum and Verticillium leptobactrum significantly decreased the development of potato cyst-nematode in roots by 76% and 83% and in the soil by 61% and 66% respectively.	28 (70)	[32]
	2017	Asia, India	To find out the effect of combined use of liquid suspensions of P. fluoresecens and P. lilacinum to manage PCN in the field conditions.	Globodera rostochiensis and Globodera pallida	Seed treatment with P. fluorescens plus soil drench with P. lilacinum reduced cysts in soil by about 75–76%, females in roots by ~80%, and eggs in soil by ~84%, and increased plant height, tuber number and yield compared to untreated and single-agent treatments and carbofuran.	28 (70)	[33]
	2017	Europe, Russia	This study was focused on elucidating the processes involved in the biocontrol of G. pallida using Trichodermaharzianum ThzID1-M3.	Globodera pallida	Trichoderma harzianum ThzID1-M3 significantly reduced Globodera pallida infection and reproduction in potato roots, lowering infection rates by up to 84% and reproduction by 60%, while also colonizing cysts, juveniles, and the potato rhizosphere	35 (88)	[34]
	2017	Europe, Russia	Quantify the activity of Brassica. juncea seed meal and formulated seed meal extracts on G. pallida and G. ellingtonae hatch and reproduction in laboratory and field experiments.	Globodera pallida and Globodera ellingtonae	Reproduction of G. pallida on potato after exposure to Brassica juncea seed meal at a rate of 2.2 t/ha was also significantly reduced.	34 (85)	[35]
	2016	Africa, Egypt	To evaluate several biological agents against meloidogyne incognita infecting potato and soil borne fungi associated with the nematode infestion.	Meloidogyne incognita	Using biological agents achieved a high activity against the root-knot nematode and gave an high increase in the yield.	23 (58)	[36]
	2016	Europe, Belgium	To evaluate if amendments of the aforementioned waste products could accelerate the negative effects of inundation on survival of PCN in waste soil.	Globodera rostochiensis and Globodera pallida	Inundation combined with organic amendments significantly reduced nematode survival. Amendments with potato peels and leek reduced viability by up to 99.9% after 4 weeks compared to 72% reduction in non-amended inundated soil after 8 weeks. Organic amendments also reduced hatching and infectivity of juveniles. Higher concentrations of short-chain fatty acids and lower oxygen levels contributed to nematode suppression.	33 (83)	[37]
	2016	Europe, Italy	To test effectiveness of Pochar against RKNs attacking potato and the P. chlamydosporia growth effects on non-parasitized tomato plants, to evaluate the best conditions for its open-field applications	Meloidogyne incognita	The use of Pochar in open-field conditions for RKNs control on potato appeared effective in controlling RKN.	25 (63)	[38]
Chemical control	2024	Europe, Russia	Biodegradable polycaprolactone and montmorillonite (PCL/MMT) granules loaded with oxamyl with prolonged release and their nematicidal effect against Globodera rostochiensis on potato variety “Krasnoyarskiy ranniy”.	Globodera rostochiensis	Showed satisfactory results. 2.5 times fewer cysts were found on the roots of the plants treated with PCL/MMT granules with oxamyl than in the positive control, but significantly more than in the group treated with the commercial pesticide.	34 (85)	[39]
	2023	North America, USA	To evaluate the efficacy of Metam potassium and a mixture of Metam potassium and fluensulfone on (1) management of plant-parasitic nematodes (2) yield response.	Belonolaimus longicaudatus	Fumigation with 1,3-dichloroprene continues to be the most consistently effective option for managing sting nematode in potato production.	34 (85)	[40]
	2022	Asia, Turkey	To compare the efficacy of fosthiazate (900 g/L), fluopyram (400 g/L), and Paecilomyces lilacinus strain PL1 (108 cfu/mL) against field populations of Globodera rostochiensis on potato under field conditions in naturally infested fields in İzmir Province, Turkey.	Globodera rostochiensis	The study tested fosthiazate, fluopyram, and Paecilomyces lilacinus PL1 against field populations of Globodera rostochiensis on potato. All three treatments significantly reduced nematode densities and increased yield, with fosthiazate and fluopyram outperforming the biological agent and providing about 31–34% yield gains over the untreated control.	32 (80)	[41]
	2019	Europe, Italy	To test the nematicidal efficacy of an abamectin formulation (Vertimec®EC) on the PCN G. pallida in vitro and to determine the effective dose for its control in a glasshouse experiment as a preliminary approach to field application.	Globodera pallida	The doses of 18 and 36 g/mL significantly reduced the number of eggs, juveniles, cyst/g soil and reproduction rate in comparison to both the untreated control and the fosthiazate treatment. Soil applications of abamectin provided significant Globodera pallida control with LD50 and LD99.9 of 14.4 and 131.3 g/mL,	34 (85)	[42]
	2019	North America, USA	To evaluate the efficacy of fluensulfone at various rates and the fumigant 1,3-dichloroprene management of plant-parasitic nematodes	Belonolaimus longicaudatus, Pratylenchus sp., Paratrichodorus spp.	Fluensulfone and 1,3-dichloroprene reduced sting nematode by 52–100%; improved yields 33–66% (except high rates in 2017); no effect on stubby-root; lesion nematode control inconsistent	34 (85)	[43]
	2017	Africa, Tunisia	Evaluated the control potential of new chemical products based on oxamyl, carbamate nematicide, against potato cyst nematodes (PCN) and its effect on potato growth and yield.	Globodera rostochiensis	Oxamyl and ethoprophos significantly reduced nematode populations in soil and roots compared with untreated plots. Oxamyl improved potato growth parameters and showed no detectable phytotoxicity or harmful residue in tubers and soil. The study concluded that oxamyl could effectively control potato cyst nematodes in potato production.	24 (60)	[44]
	2016	Africa, Egypt	to evaluate the efficacy of different agents in controlling the root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita infecting potato plants cv. Spunta and associated weeds and their effects on potato production.	Meloidogyne incognita	All treatments significantly lowered M. incognita J2 in soil, root galls and egg masses compared with the untreated control, and increased yield; oxamyl alone gave the highest reductions (≈50–63%), Metribuzin alone also strongly reduced J2 and galls while controlling weeds, and combinations such as Metribuzin + C. coronarium or + oxamyl gave strong nematode and weed suppression with high tuber yields; ascorbic acid alone reduced nematode parameters and markedly increased yield, and C. coronarium intercrop alone had mild nematode effects but improved yield.	30 (75)	[45]
	2016	Europe, England	To evaluate fluensulfone for efficacy in the control of G. pallida in UK potato production.	Globodera pallida	Fluensulfone (4.05 kg AI/ha) reduced root infection and population development moderately; more effective when combined with resistant cultivar Santé; oxamyl had superior efficacy	34 (85)	[46]
Cultural control	2025	Africa, Kenya	Assessed comparatively, the nematicidal and fertilizer potentials of the black soldier fly frass fertilizer (BSFFF), commercial nematicide, inorganic fertilizer, and commercial organic fertilizer for potato production under open field conditions.	PCN	Results revealed that all fertilizer treatments significantly increased potato growth, number of tubers (34–61%), and tuber yield (20–72%) relative to the control. Over 26% higher tuber yield was achieved using BSFFF + 5% chitin compared to NPK + nematicide treatment. Soil amendment with BSFFF + 5% chitin caused 5–35% higher soil- 1 reduction in the number of cysts per 200 g compared to NPK + nematicide and SAFI treatments.	35 (88)	[47]
	2024	Africa, Kenya	Explored the potential of chitin-fortified black soldier fly-composted organic fertilizer (BSFCOF) as a multipurpose organic fertilizer amendment for enhancing potato yield and suppressing potato cyst nematodes	PCN	For effective management of PCN and enhancement of potato yield, it is recommended that BSFCOF is combined with 5% BSF pupal exuviae chitin.	35 (88)	[48]
	2020	North America, USA	The Volatile Fatty Acids content of these different compost and manure products to determine if Volatile Fatty Acid Content are a plausible mechanism for nematode reduction.	Pratylenchus penetrans	Poultry manure and layer ash blend showed the greatest nematode reduction in lab and field; high-rate poultry manure significantly reduced P. penetrans and improved yield; no treatments reduced Verticillium. dahliae infection significantly.	34 (85)	[49]
	2019	Africa, Kenya	(I) To determine if Solanum spp. and Amaranthus spp. are hosts for RKN and PCN, (II) to determine the potential of Solanum spp. and Amaranthus spp. to manage RKN and PCN.	RKN and PCN	When cropping susceptible crops, after three seasons of successive cultivation of these African indigenous vegetables (AIV), the galling index and number of developing PCN females measured on susceptible crops decreased by more than 75%. Wilting and RKN-PCN coinfection incidences also decreased significantly.	34 (85)	[50]
	2018	Africa, South Africa	To investigate the potential of Brassicaceae crops in reducing Meloidogyne spp. populations densities under field conditions.	Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogyne javanica	Brassicaceae cultivars evaluated showed potential as an alternative management strategy against root-knot nematodes.	34 (85)	[51]
	2016	North America, USA	To determine the effect of the nematode trap crop S. sisymbriifolium, alone or in combination with the biocontrol agents Trichoderma harzianum or Plectosphaerella cucumerina, on population decline of G. pallida.	Globodera pallida	A prior crop of S. sisymbriifolium reduced G. pallida Pf/Pi by about 99 in a subsequent potato crop compared with potato-after-potato or potato-after-fallow; no cysts were produced on S. sisymbriifolium or barley, confirming they are non-hosts, but only S. sisymbriifolium markedly reduced populations in the next potato; T. harzianum and P. cucumerina reduced progeny and Pf/Pi mainly in potato-after-potato cycles, with effects depending on cropping sequence.	33 (83)	[52]
Resistant genotypes	2024	Africa, South Africa	To screen for the response of five selected commercial potato cultivars to the aggressive and widespread M. enterolobii and M. javanica.	Meloidogyne enterolobii and Meloidogyne javanica	Further, cultivars ‘Buffelspoort 1’ and ‘Hertha’ showed the highest susceptibility, whilst cultivar ‘Mnandi’ show the least susceptibility. Results suggested that all five commercial potato cultivars were susceptible to M. enterolobii and M. javanica.	35 (88)	[53]
	2024	South America, Brazil	To evaluate the reaction of potato clones and cultivars to a population mixture of Meloidogyne incognita and M. ethiopica in a naturally infested field.	Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogyne ethiopica	The clones C2743-09-09, CH41, F119-12-01, F129-12-08, F63-10-13A, F65-13-06, F88-11-01 and OD38-06, and the cultivars Markies, Agata and Asterix were the least susceptible genotypes to field mix of the root-knot nematodes M. incognita and M. ethiopica. But combining a lower degree of susceptibility and good tuber productivity, clones MB54-02, F53-11-05, F63-10-13A, F65-13-06, OD38-06 stood out. The commercial cultivars Atlantic and Epagri Catucha presented greater multiplication of nematodes in the field than the other evaluated cultivars.	33 (83)	[54]
	2023	Europe-Netherlands	Evaluate the performance of nine potato genotypes (including known resistant lines) in terms of tuber yield, quality, and susceptibility to Meloidogyne chitwoodi under controlled greenhouse conditions.	Meloidogyne chitwoodi	Resistant genotypes showed high tolerance (m = 1), low tuber infestation (0.002 J2/g soil), and >91% clean tubers. Cv. Desiree showed high susceptibility (m < 0.8), TKI > 20, and 0.35 J2/g soil infestation. Tuber quality and yield correlated with pot size.	31 (78)	[55]
	2020	Africa, Algeria	To gather information on the infestation dynamics of these nematodes on three potato varieties under natural conditions to better control their populations by practical actions and limit their damage within their distribution range in Algeria.	Globodera rostochiensis and Globodera pallida	Findings proved that the growth of resistant potato varieties, unlike sensitive ones, in the infested areas could present an effective management strategy against these pests.	23 (58)	[56]
	2020	Africa Ethiopia	To evaluate the reaction of 13 potato cultivars to co-infestation of Meloidogyne incognita (MI) and Ralstonia solanacearum (RS) under greenhouse conditions.	Meloidogyne incognita	“Gudenie” and “Belete” showed “resistant” to MI in RS inoculation prior to MI. These cultivars could be recommended to be used in integrated disease management. Most cultivars showed “resistant” to RS in RS inoculation alone. “Bubu” produced the highest mean values of marketable tuber number per plant with most tested treatments.	30 (75)	[57]
	2018	Asia, Iran	To investigate the development of different juvenile stages of G. rostochiensis in one susceptible cv. (Marfona) and the resistant (to Ro1) cvs; Agria, Satina and Banba under glasshouse conditions.	Globodera rostochiensis	Juvenile penetration, development and female formation were greatly reduced and delayed in resistant cvs Agria, Satina and Banba compared with susceptible Marfona; only 23, 10 and 4% of inoculated J2 entered roots of Satina, Agria and Banba vs. 44% in Marfona, hatching from root diffusates was also lower in resistant cvs, confirming effectiveness of H1-based resistance in limiting reproduction.	29 (73)	[58]
	2017	Africa, South Africa	To determine the host status of high yielding commercial potato cultivars in South Africa to M. incognita and M. javanica populations.	Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogyne javanica	In greenhouse trials over two seasons, reproductive potential (eggs + J2 per g root) of both nematodes was >1 on all tested cultivars (Sifra, Lanorma, Innovator, Uptodate, FL2108.2006.1), indicating all are excellent hosts; RP values were particularly high for M. javanica on Innovator and Sifra and for M. incognita on Lanorma, confirming high susceptibility and the need for active nematode management when these cultivars are grown.	23 (58)	[59]
	2017	Africa, Egypt	To evaluate suitability of four potato cultivars, i.e., Cara, Draga, Spunta and Solana against M. incognita infection at 20 ± 3 °C.	Meloidogyne incognita	All four cultivars (Cara, Draga, Spunta, Solana) were susceptible (galls and egg masses on all); Cara and Draga were classified as moderately resistant/tolerant (R < 1, RGI = 2), while Spunta (RG ≈ 1.98, RGI 4) and Solana (RG ≈ 1.3, RGI 2) were highly susceptible, with Spunta showing the largest growth reductions.	28 (70)	[60]
	2017	South America-Brazil	To evaluate the resistance of different potato cultivars and clones to M. javanica and estimate the nematode damage to the tubers, under greenhouse conditions.	Meloidogyne javanica	All genotypes were susceptible (FR > 1.00) to M. javanica. However, there were different levels of susceptibility among the cultivars tested.	23 (58)	[61]

summarizes, for each included study, the management strategy assessed, the publication year and region, the primary objective, the target nematode species, and the findings. The table contrasts the control measures applied in different settings and periods, the nematodes to which they were applied, and their success in lowering nematode pressure and enhancing potato growth or yield.

The review (Figure 4) indicates that different nematode species tend to dominate in various parts of the world. Root-knot nematodes appeared most frequently, especially in studies from Africa (14 cases), Europe (2 cases), and South America (3 cases), showing they are widespread in tropical regions where potatoes are grown. Potato cyst nematodes were mainly reported in Europe (9 cases) and Africa (8 cases), where they were the most common species found. Lesion (3 cases), sting (2 cases), and stubby nematodes (1 case) appeared much less often and were only reported in North America, suggesting a more limited distribution. These patterns suggest that potato cyst nematodes and root knot nematodes are globally widespread, while lesion, sting, and stubby nematodes tend to be more region-specific. Such regional differences may be related to climate, soil type, or cropping practices. This implies that farmers and researchers may need control strategies tailored to the specific nematodes in each region rather than a generalized management strategy.

4. Discussion

Five major nematode groups emerged across the included studies: potato cyst nematodes (Globodera spp.), root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), stubby-root nematodes (Trichodorus/Paratrichodorus spp.), and sting nematodes (Belonolaimus longicaudatus). Globodera spp. and Meloidogyne spp. dominated the evidence base, reflecting their status as the most damaging and widely distributed nematodes in potato systems. Rather than being evenly distributed, these taxa showed clear regional patterns: PCN and root-knot nematodes were the primary focus in African and European studies; sting, stubby-root, and root-lesion nematodes featured more prominently in North American and South American studies; and Asian studies most often targeted G. rostochiensis. These patterns likely reflect underlying agroecological differences and national research priorities, but they also indicate important blind spots: in regions where only one nematode group has been studied, other economically relevant species may be under-recognized. For practice, this means that management recommendations derived from one region cannot be assumed to cover the full nematode complex elsewhere, and for research, it underlines the need for more comprehensive, region-specific surveillance that goes beyond the usual suspects of Globodera and Meloidogyne.

Climatic conditions and cropping practices play a major role in shaping the abundance and distribution of plant-parasitic nematodes across regions. Warmer and more humid climates, typical of tropical and subtropical zones, generally favour rapid multiplication and year-round activity of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) [62]. In contrast, potato cyst nematodes (Globodera spp.) are more often associated with cooler subtropical and temperate regions, but process-based modeling shows that increasing soil temperatures and longer growing seasons can allow multiple generations of G. pallida within a single season [63,64]. Together, these studies suggest that climate warming is likely to extend the climatic envelope suitable for Meloidogyne spp. into currently cooler potato-growing areas and to accelerate PCN population growth, reinforcing the need to test the management strategies identified in this review under future climate scenarios and to prioritize the deployment of resistant cultivars.

The continuous monocropping of susceptible crops has been shown to exacerbate pest pressures, particularly plant-parasitic nematodes, by providing a constant food source and favorable conditions for population buildup. Crop rotation with non-host or poor-host species remains a well-documented strategy for suppressing nematode populations and mitigating associated yield losses [65].

4.1. Nematode Species and Their Symptoms

Each of the nematodes discussed in this review causes symptoms and varying degrees of crop loss. Nematodes cause the same above-ground symptoms resulting from gall formation on roots, including stunting, yellowing, wilting, or necrosis of the foliage, reduced yields, and, in some cases, complete crop failure [66]. Root-knot nematodes are obligate sedentary endoparasites that invade plant roots and induce abnormal cell enlargement (hypertrophy) and increased cell division (hyperplasia), leading to gall formation. They typically penetrate the root at the elongation zone and migrate toward the root tip, where they enter the vascular cylinder to establish specialised feeding structures known as giant cells. As surrounding cells divide and enlarge, characteristic galls or root- knots develop, which disrupt root growth and function, this damage reduces water and nutrient uptake, impairs transport to shoots and tubers, and diverts energy from tuber development, ultimately leading to yield reduction [67].

Potato cyst nematodes, classified as obligatory sedentary endoparasites, are estimated to cause up to a 9% reduction in global potato yields due to infestations by G. rostochiensis and G. pallida [66]. Below-ground symptoms typically include a poorly developed and discolored root system with excessive branching, smaller tubers, and visible cysts attached to potato roots [68]. Damaged roots cause plants to wilt, particularly during warmer parts of the day, and they may remain wilted even with irrigation. The root system becomes less developed, leading to increased lateral root density, reduced overall plant growth, premature death, and a poor response to fertilization [17]. Root-lesion nematodes are considered migratory endoparasites as they are capable of feeding and reproducing inside root tissues, though they can also feed externally on the root surface. The symptoms they cause on potato tubers vary by species. For example, Pratylenchus scribneri typically results in a scabby texture on tubers, whereas P. penetrans is associated with wart-like growths [16].

4.2. Nematode Management and Control Strategies

4.2.1. Biocontrol Agents

Biocontrol agents are living organisms or their products used to suppress nematode populations and reduce crop damage. This is an environmentally friendly alternative to chemical nematicides, which can have adverse effects on the environment and non-target organisms. Among the biocontrol agents that can be used are nematophagous fungi (NF), which are specialised fungi capable of capturing, killing, and digesting nematodes [69]. They can inhabit both the external and internal environments of the host, utilizing it as a nutrient source. These fungi employ diverse infection strategies, including the formation of specialized trapping structures to immobilize nematodes, penetration of females and eggs via hyphal tips, and the use of conidia that adhere to the host surface while releasing toxins to facilitate parasitism [70,71]. Researchers are exploring ways to use these fungi to control nematode populations. Research conducted in Tunisia by Hajji et al. [32] demonstrated the biocontrol potential of indigenous strains of Verticillium leptobactrum and the commercial formulation of Purpureocillium lilacinum against both M. javanica and G. pallida. The results indicated that these biocontrol agents effectively reduced nematode populations while enhancing potato plant health. This corroborates with [69] findings suggesting that biocontrol can serve as an effective alternative to chemical nematicides that may lead to adverse environmental effects. On the contrary, researchers have also explored the effect of Meloidogyne on tomato growth and performance in the presence of V. leptobactrum [72]. The presence of V. leptobactrum was found to promote better growth in tomato plants. However, other studies have shown that using P. lilacinum on crops like tomatoes also effectively controlled Meloidogyne spp. [69]. The use of such biological methods can significantly contribute to sustainable agriculture by minimizing chemical inputs and promoting ecological balance.

Bell et al. [26] demonstrated the AMF inoculation improves potato tolerance to PCN at low densities, despite increasing cyst and egg production. This paradox can be explained by the distinction between tolerance and resistance. Unlike resistance, which reduces pathogen reproduction, tolerance enables plants to maintain growth and yield will supporting pathogen population. Enhanced nutrient uptake and improved plant vigour associated with AMF colonization may allow plants to compensate for nematode damage, thereby sustaining tuber production. At the same time. The use of such biological methods can significantly contribute to sustainable agriculture by minimizing chemical inputs and promoting ecological balance.

4.2.2. Biofumigation

Biofumigation is an agronomic technique that involves growing and incorporating brassicaceous plants into the soil to manage soil-borne pests and diseases, including plant-parasitic nematodes. When these plants decompose, they release isothiocyanates (ITCs), natural compounds derived from the breakdown of glucosinolates (GLs), which have pesticidal properties similar to those of synthetic fumigants [73]. In addition to their biofumigant effect, brassicas offer multiple agronomic benefits: they help suppress weeds, improve soil structure, reduce erosion, and increase organic content. For organic producers in particular, these crops serve as a natural and multifunctional solution for pest and disease management while enhancing overall soil health [74].

Brassica juncea (mustard) has been tested for its nematode suppression capacity under greenhouse and field conditions. According to Dandurand et al. [35] and Chen et al. [30], field trials using biofumigation with Brassica resulted in a significant decrease in nematode populations and increased potato yields. Reproduction of G. pallida on potato was also significantly reduced after exposure to B. juncea seed meal at a rate of 2.2 t/ha [30]. Overall, biofumigation shows potential as a sustainable alternative to chemical nematicides, but further research is needed to assess its affordability, adoption, and effectiveness across diverse farming systems.

4.2.3. Abiotic Resistance Inducers and Intercropping

Induced resistance is a physiological process in which a plant’s defensive capacity is enhanced by exposure to biotic or abiotic elicitors prior to pathogen infection, without involving any genetic modification of the host plant [75]. The Egyptian study by Hamida et al. [45] evaluated multiple management strategies, including the use of ascorbic acid as an abiotic resistance inducer, along with intercropping with Chrysanthemum coronarium L. (crown daisy). The synergistic effect of Metribuzin and ascorbic acid highlighted the potential for integrated pest management. The intercropping of the crown daisy shows promise as a biological control method. This plant produces allelochemicals that deter nematode populations or promote beneficial soil microorganisms that suppress nematode activity [76]. Previous results by Dong et al. [77] demonstrated that crown daisy root exudates play an important role in nematode chemotaxis, resulting in the blocking of nematode infection. Furthermore, intercropping with crown daisies not only helps control nematodes but also improves weed management, suggesting a multifaceted approach to pest management.

The combination of Metribuzin (a herbicide) and ascorbic acid (an abiotic resistance inducer) showed the highest suppressive effect on M. incognita [45]. Metribuzin likely helps reduce weed competition, which can stress potato plants and enhance nematode infestation. By reducing these competitive pressures, potato plants can allocate more resources to growth and defense. Ascorbic acid’s role in inducing systemic resistance is particularly noteworthy. Its application may enhance the plants’ innate immune responses, allowing them to better withstand nematode attacks. This synergy not only improves plant health but may also contribute to higher yields [45]. While oxamyl is effective as a nematicide, reliance on chemical treatments can lead to issues such as resistance development in nematode populations and negative environmental impacts [78]. Together, abiotic resistance inducers and intercropping not only reduce nematode pressure but also promote soil health and biodiversity, making them essential components of sustainable and friendly management strategies.

4.2.4. Resistant Varieties

Resistant crop varieties help protect plants by preventing nematodes from feeding effectively on their roots, thereby reducing the extent of infestation [79]. This resistance can be qualitative, controlled by a single major gene that provides strong protection against specific nematode races, or quantitative, involving multiple genes that offer broader and more lasting defenses against a range of nematode types, even if the protection is not absolute [80]. The findings from Algeria by Djebroune et al. [56] emphasized the efficacy of resistant potato varieties in managing potato cyst nematodes. The growth of resistant varieties in infested areas illustrates the critical role of cultivar selection in nematode management strategies. Researchers have studied how different okra varieties respond to root-knot nematodes and found that they have different levels of resistance or susceptibility [81]. A study by Lamondia and Brodie [82] on the influence of resistant and susceptible potato cultivars on changes in Globodera rostochiensis population density at different nematode inoculum levels (Pi) in the greenhouse and field. It was demonstrated that in resistant cultivars, the number of viable eggs per cyst declined by 60–90% with each growth cycle, while cysts containing viable eggs were reduced by 77% after five cycles. This supports the idea that using resistant cultivars can effectively reduce nematode populations and improve yields, which is vital for farmers in areas with high nematode pressure. Such strategies can also be part of broader integrated pest management frameworks, which are crucial for sustainable potato production.

Selecting resistant cultivars is usually a strategy for managing nematodes in potato and other crops. Resistant varieties not only suppress nematode populations and reduce root damage but may also help maintain yield stability in areas with high pest pressure. Coupled with integrated pest management strategies such as crop rotation, biological control, and soil health improvement, cultivar resistance forms a sustainable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly approach to nematode management. Therefore, it is prudent to prioritize resistant cultivars to ensure that potato producers protect their crops while improving productivity and supporting long-term resilience in potato production systems.

Although resistant cultivars can provide effective and environmentally friendly control of plant-parasitic nematodes, their efficacy may decline over time. Practical experience and recent studies have shown that nematode populations possess considerable evolutionary potential and can adapt to specific resistance genes when the same cultivar is grown repeatedly over successive seasons, leading to a gradual breakdown of resistance and reduced control [83,84,85].

4.2.5. Organic Amendments and Brassicaceae Rotations

Across the included studies, cultural practices that modify soil biology and cropping sequences—particularly organic fertilization and rotations with Brassicaceae—emerge as complementary strategies for long-term nematode suppression. Organic amendments such as composts, manures and chitin-rich by-products (e.g., black soldier fly composted frass) consistently improved soil fertility and potato performance, while shifting nematode communities towards bacterivorous, fungivorous and predatory taxa and reducing the abundance of plant-parasitic nematodes compared with mineral fertilizers [48,86,87,88]. These inputs enhance microbial activity and biological control functions in the rhizosphere, and they align well with regenerative agriculture goals by reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers and commercial nematicides [86,87,88]. Similarly, incorporating Brassicaceae crops into rotations particularly poor or non-host species such as Brassica napus and Eruca sativa can disrupt Meloidogyne life cycles and lower population densities over multi-year sequences, while also contributing additional biomass and diversity to the system [89,90]. Taken together, the evidence suggests that organic amendments and Brassicaceae rotations are best viewed as foundational, ecosystem-based components of integrated nematode management: they build soil health, foster more suppressive nematode communities and reduce background pressure, but their effects are slower and less predictable than those of synthetic nematicides and therefore most effective when combined with other tactics (e.g., resistant cultivars or targeted chemical/biological inputs) rather than used as stand alone solutions in high pressure situations.

4.2.6. Nematicides

Nematicides are chemicals used in agriculture to mitigate the negative influence of plant-parasitic nematodes on plant health and subsequently on crop production yield and/or quality [42]. In potato production, farmers most often rely on fumigation with 1,3-dichloropropene, sometimes mixed with chloropicrin, to also tackle soil-borne pests and diseases. A newer option, fluensulfone, has shown good results against sting nematode in Florida, but it has not yet been widely adopted in commercial fields. Some growers also use metam salts (metam potassium or sodium), which have been around for many years and provide broad protection against nematodes, fungal pathogens, and weeds [40].

Application of nematicides has been reported to reduce nematode numbers, thereby increasing potato production [39,40,42,43]. Chemical control in agricultural production increases yield but harms the environment and human beings [15]. In crop production systems, especially in regions such as Africa, the use of nematicides is often limited by high costs, limited access, and inadequate training. This highlights the need for safer, financially affordable, and sustainable alternatives that can be effectively implemented in low-resource settings. The studies summarized in this review report on nematicides whose registration status and use differ between regions. Furthermore, the various active ingredients are unevenly represented in the available literature, and some of the products mentioned are not licensed or accessible in all countries included in this review.

4.2.7. Cover Crops

Cover crops involve growing plants, typically during the off-season, and leaving their biomass in the field to provide various benefits to the agroecosystem [91]. The idea of planting cover crops in agricultural systems as a natural way to control PPNs stems from the success seen with organic mulches in reducing PPNs and insect pests [92]. Through allelopathic effects, biofumigation, and interactions between cover crops and the soil microbial community, indirect benefits may include the suppression of soilborne pathogens, including plant-parasitic nematodes [92,93,94]. A study conducted in South Africa by Knoetze et al. [91] found that 12 cover crops, including mustards, radish, oats, ryegrass, triticale, and marigold, did not support nematode multiplication and showed potential for nematode management. In contrast, pink serradella, subterranean clover, rye, buckwheat, and garden nasturtium were good hosts and should be avoided in infested orchards. This shows that selecting the right cover crops and combining them with other practices in integrated nematode management can sustainably lower nematode pressure while also supporting healthier soils in potato production. Careful selection and integration of cover crops offer a sustainable pathway to reduce nematode pressure while enhancing soil health and resilience in potato production. Choosing cover crops that do not support nematode multiplication and combining them with complementary practices such as crop rotation, organic amendments, and targeted biological control can create a more balanced and robust agro-ecosystem. This approach not only suppresses harmful soilborne pathogens but also improves soil structure, nutrient cycling, and microbial diversity, contributing to long-term productivity and sustainability. Ultimately, the strategic use of cover crops represents a practical, eco-friendly, and cost-effective tool for integrated nematode management in potato production systems.

4.3. Comparison of Biological and Chemical Control

Although chemical and biological strategies were most frequently evaluated in the included studies, they differ markedly in cost, environmental impact and scalability. Broad-spectrum fumigants and non-fumigant nematicides can achieve the largest and most consistent reductions in nematode densities and are often the only options capable of pushing very high initial populations below economic damage thresholds, but they are also the most expensive and environmentally problematic interventions [95]. In smallholder systems in sub-Saharan Africa, such products are frequently unaffordable and difficult to apply safely, and their use is further constrained by weak input markets and regulatory frameworks [96,97]. Biological control agents and bionematicides generally have lower acute toxicity and may be more acceptable from an environmental standpoint, yet they show more variable field performance and still require a functioning supply chain [98]. By contrast, once resistant seed is accessible, host resistance offers a low-recurrent-cost, highly scalable option for smallholders, but resistant potato cultivars remain under-represented in African and Asian breeding pipelines compared with temperate regions.

5. Limitations of the Study, Research Gaps and Recommendations

This review is subject to several limitations that should be recognized. We restricted our search and inclusion criteria to studies published in English, which may have introduced language bias and led to under-representation of relevant research from regions where other languages predominate. In addition, some potentially eligible full-text articles were not accessible without purchase and could not be assessed, which may have further reduced the number of included studies. A further limitation is that the review protocol was not prospectively registered in a public database. The analysis was based on published studies, which were concentrated in a limited number of countries. As a result, the findings may not fully represent the global situation of nematode infestations in potato production, particularly in regions with limited research output. Many studies focused on short-term experimental trials rather than long-term field evaluations. Limited adoption and investigation of cultural control practices and resistant cultivars compared to biological and chemical control methods. The heavy reliance on a few management strategies may increase the vulnerability of potato production systems to evolving nematode populations and potential environmental concerns associated with chemical inputs.

Future research should prioritize long-term field trials to evaluate the sustained effectiveness of nematode management strategies under real farming conditions. Studies should also investigate integrated management strategies that combine multiple strategies, such as biological control, resistant cultivars, crop rotation, and cultural practices, to enhance overall effectiveness. Research should assess the practicality, affordability, and accessibility of these management strategies to ensure they are feasible for farmers, particularly smallholder producers. There is also a critical need to expand nematode surveillance and diagnostic surveys in potato-growing regions, especially in under-researched areas across Africa, Asia, and South America. Strengthening research investments in these regions will help generate reliable data, support the development of region-specific management protocols, and ultimately improve potato productivity and global food security.

6. Conclusions

The objective of this review was to map nematode species affecting potato crops, assess their prevalence, and outline effective control strategies. The nematodes discovered in this review are root-knot, stubby, potato cyst, lesion and sting nematodes. Root-knot nematodes and potato cyst nematodes such as G. pallida, G. rostochiensis, M. incognita, M. javanica, and M. enterolobii were the most dominant and significantly impacted potato production by damaging roots, reducing water and nutrient uptake and decreasing tuber yield and quality.

The diverse management strategies outlined in this review, such as chemical, biological, cultural and resistant cultivars, highlight the potential for integrated approaches to control nematode infestations in potato crops. Within the studies included in this review, chemical and biological control are the most frequently investigated management strategies. The incorporation of resistant cultivars, abiotic inducers, organic fertilizers, and crop rotation offers greater potential for enhancing the sustainability and resilience of farming systems. For potato producers, the effectiveness of these methods depends on their affordability, local availability, and access to training, extension services, and diagnostic tools to monitor nematode infestations and their specific control measures. Regardless of progress in nematode management, several gaps remain.

This review found that most studies on nematode management in potatoes are conducted in only a few countries, and many focus on short-term experiments rather than long-term field results. There is also a lack of nematode surveillance, diagnostic surveys, and research in many potato-growing regions, especially in parts of Africa, Asia, and South America. Future research should focus on long-term field studies, combine different management strategies and develop affordable and practical solutions that farmers can easily adopt.