Seed Potato Quality Assurance in Ethiopia: System Analysis and Considerations on Quality Declared Assurance Practices

Abstract

Smallholder potato farmers in Ethiopia do not realize the theoretical yield potential of the crop because they do not benefit from the advantages of using quality seed potato of improved varieties. The high disease incidence in seed potatoes has large implications on the potato farming system since the country lacks appropriate seed quality assurance mechanisms. Seed potato quality assurance relies more on the technical support provided by the national research and extension systems than the official seed certification agency. This paper elaborates systematic challenges and opportunities within the potato seed system and poses two research questions: (1) What type of seed quality assurance mechanisms (informal, quality declared, certified) are under implementation in Ethiopia? (2) How does the current seed quality assurance system operate in terms of reliability, accessibility, and quality standards to deliver quality seed potato? The data were collected through face-to-face in-depth key informant interviews with various seed regulatory laboratory managers and technicians in the Oromia, SNNP, and SWEP regions in the main seed- and ware-producing areas of Ethiopia. This was complemented by a comprehensive analysis of relevant documents. The findings show that currently there is no established procedure in place to officially certify early-generation seed potatoes. Two out of six seed quality control laboratories assessed for this study inspected seed potato fields in 2021 but as quality declared seed (QDS), and approved the fields inspected based on visual inspection alone. Our study revealed a weak linkage between early-generation seed (EGS) potato producers, commercial, and QDS seed potato producers, and seed quality control laboratories. Seed potato quality assurance operations were carried out by only a few seed regulatory laboratories with several concerns raised over the effectiveness of quality standards since seed-borne diseases, such as bacterial wilt, have been found at high frequency in the country’s seed potato system. Hence, the current procedures and challenges call for the necessity of upgrading current quality assurance in seed potato certification. Our study underlines the need for policymakers, development partners, and researchers to collaborate and pool efforts to consider transforming the quality declared system to appropriate seed certification. We recommended that institutionalizing novel plant disease diagnostics into seed regulatory frameworks is needed for sustainable potato production and food security in Ethiopia.

1. Introduction

Agriculture is the mainstay of Ethiopia’s economy, accounting for 34 percent of the GDP, 75 percent of exports, and 73 percent of the country’s employment opportunities. Furthermore, agriculture provides 70 percent of the raw industry. A big share of this sector, however, is operated by smallholder farmers in subsistence farming [1,2]. Thus, rapid agricultural growth has the potential to provide new employment opportunities and reduce poverty [1]. With these and other multifaceted roles, agriculture is ear-marked to contribute to the United Nations’ sustainable development goals. Despite this potential, the agriculture sector in Ethiopia has remained underdeveloped and cannot yet ensure food security for the second largest population in the African continent [2,3].

Potatoes play a critical role in Ethiopia’s food security, particularly under smallholder farming conditions. As a high-yielding, short-growing-season crop, potatoes help diversify farming systems for about 5 million potato farmers and provide an important food source, especially during lean periods when other staple crops like grains are not yet ready for harvest [4]. However, the average national productivity of the crop is 13.3 t/ha [5], although there is ample potential for boosting this [6]. This lower yield is attributed to various constraints and use of inferior seed tubers by most smallholder farmers [6,7]. Moreover, weak market linkages, and a poor and inferior agricultural input supply system with limited quality assured seed, is undermining the sector’s performance [8,9,10]. A study by Hirpa et al. [11] identify several factors affecting seed potato quality, including inadequate storage facilities, improper handling, and the rapid degradation of seed potatoes due to pests and diseases. A significant challenge is also the lack of a comprehensive national seed potato certification system, which hinders farmers from accessing high-quality seed potatoes that could potentially increase their yields [7]. A more recent study by Etherton et al. [12] found that potato farmers and traders in Ethiopia face poor communication with other stakeholders in the potato value chain. This lack of coordination poses a significant risk to the potato market, potentially leading to a loss of foreign currency earnings in the near future.

All these, in turn, have interlinked effects on accessing quality seed at affordable price to smallholders for better yield and increased productivity [13,14,15,16].

Ethiopia has a pluralistic seed system for crops like potato, comprising formal, alternative, and informal schemes, though scholars present different views on seed system categorization [10,17,18]. The contribution of the informal seed system to planting stock in Ethiopia may be 98.3%, with the remaining 1.3% coming from alternative and formal sources, representing a very insignificant fraction [19]. Thus, almost all potato farmers in Ethiopia use own-saved seed tubers and seed from their social networks due to various reasons [15].

As a developing country that lacks a well-functioning seed certification system, Ethiopia adopted the quality declared seed (QDS) approach for many economically important crops including the potato. QDS, a class below certified seed, is guided by standards that are less rigorous, but which are recognized by the regulatory bodies in the Ethiopian seed potato system [7,19]. This QDS seed production system in many African countries is being challenged by various factors, such as lack of access to foundation seed, inspections, and seed testing services, which are key for quality seed production [20].

The seed sector in Ethiopia is coordinated by various state ministers under the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). Linked to the federal government, seed quality assurance is cascaded from federal to regional regulatory authorities [21]. Since 2021, the Ethiopian Agricultural Authority (EAA) under the MoA was established to coordinate all regulatory aspects of the seed sector under the Ethiopian Seed Proclamation No. 1262/2021 [22]. Functionally, the seed regulatory laboratories are located at zonal level under the regional agricultural inputs regulatory authority. They mostly work on seed of cereal and grain crops and rarely on vegetatively propagated crops (VPCs), which require more advanced pathogen testing facilities and skilled personnel [7] that are currently in short supply in the country [20]. The vulnerability of the potato to seed-borne diseases and pests requires a strong, efficient and customized regulatory mechanism [23]. On the other hand, a functional seed system must integrate efforts of research, extension, seed producers, and other non-government organizations [12,24]. The seed regulatory laboratories have a plethora of problems, including coordination and capacity bottlenecks to undertake the potato seed quality assurance within the standards set by national or international authorities to achieve the seed sector transformation goal in Ethiopia comparable to cereals and legumes [12,21,22].

Though the Ethiopian government established rules and regulations for seed sector transformation, the institutions allotted for the implementation are not fully functioning due to various constraints [22,25]. These may include regulations designed to restrict importation of sub-standard seed. On the other hand, seed quality is a complex trait that involves a combination of plant genetics, seed technology, seed health, and molecular biology. Some of the classical methods of seed improvement include coating, pelleting, priming, and production of artificial seed [26]. The seeds of VPCs, unlike cereals and pulses, are very prone to latent infection by seed and soil-borne pathogens, such as Ralstonia solanacearum and viruses [27,28]. Central quality control systems by governments in most developing countries tend to limit market size, while more localized production systems are limited by both capacity and resources [29]. Furthermore, seed is an international commodity that is regulated by international quality standards, but the regulatory system in the country has limited capacity and effectiveness to implement this function [21]. For example, Ethiopia has a potato commodity trade with countries where many quarantine diseases like bacterial wilt have not been reported yet and the Ethiopian potato market may be at risk in the future unless the country follows the international plant health restriction guidelines [12]. Etherton et al. [12] also identified potential locations for the establishment of formal seed systems and the enhancement of seed potato surveillance, highlighting the strengthening of potato seed traders.

In developing countries like Ethiopia, farmers engaged in cultivating VPCs have limited access to quality planting materials due to high costs and lack of proper quality seed supply systems [10,16]. There are various quality assurance limitations related to existing policies, institutional capacity, and markets that impact on VPC seed systems, such as QA capacity or mechanisms, seed certification regulations, phytosanitary standards, poor collective action among farmers’ seed cooperative groups, and other interconnected issues along the VPC seed value chain [29,30,31]. The support being provided to seed grower cooperatives is mainly focused on improving the growers’ seed potato production capacity and less on building good governance and quality control in the seed potato value chain [30].

Crop production and seed system development in Ethiopia is cereal-prejudiced, leaving the seed systems of most VPCs with limited attention by policy makers. Consequently, rules, regulations, and seed laws enacted in Ethiopia are hardly applied. Moreover, the findings of Spielman et al. [29] recommend a need for alternatives that balance a permissive regulatory regime with decentralized production systems, grassroots capacity development, market surveillance, and systems that integrate internal (producer-level) quality control with external (regulatory) quality assurance. In line with this study, the QDS system in Ethiopia has implemented a limited 90 percent field internal (producer-level) quality control and 10 percent field external (regulatory) quality assurance approach. The 10 percent of field external seed quality assurance is based on visual observation only without considering the nature and the biology of the potato (susceptibility to pests and disease, bulkiness, perishability, etc.) as 90 percent of seed is left for internal seed quality control [7,28]. Both protocols, unfortunately, are a recipe for the transfer of seed-borne disease, particularly bacterial wilt.

Given the growing pressure to deliver quality seed potato to farmers in the country, we set out to explore the capacities, capabilities, and limitations of seed potato quality assurance of seed regulatory laboratories in Ethiopia, which are dedicated to conducting quality assurance for at least 10 percent of field-grown QDS potatoes. Our study sought to broaden the understanding of what types of seed quality assurance mechanisms (informal, quality declared, certified) are under implementation in Ethiopia. We first briefly describe the overall seed system and the role of quality seed for improved crop production and productivity. The second section outlines the potato seed system in the country and the existing quality assurance mechanisms in place. The next section presents the findings followed by a discussion in the context of previous research work across institutions and regions. We conclude the paper by drawing lessons from the study to generate recommendations that will inform policy decisions and priorities for seed potato sector transformation in Ethiopia and elsewhere with similar contexts.

This paper elaborates systematic challenges and opportunities of the seed systems relevant to potato and interrogates two research questions. The two underlying research questions are formulated as follows:

(1)

What type of seed quality assurance mechanisms (informal, quality declared, certified) are under implementation in Ethiopia?

(2)

How does the current seed quality assurance system operate in terms of reliability, accessibility, and quality standards to deliver quality seed potato?

2. Methods

2.1. Description of Seed Regulatory Laboratories

Structurally, the seed sector in Ethiopia is overseen by various state ministers within the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and hierarchically established from the ministry to zone seed regulatory laboratory level where the actual seed quality assurance practices are carried out. A regional agricultural inputs authority manages seed quality assurance practices within each region, while the Ethiopian Agricultural Authority (EAA) under the Ministry has the mandate to control regional authority offices in the country.

2.2. Data Collection

The data collection involved both a desktop literature review and in-depth key expert/informant interviews, targeting the seed regulatory laboratory managers and technicians to exploit information on both managerial and skill-allied points regardless of the existing seed quality assurance practices.

2.3. Literature Review

The literature review was conducted to understand and analyze the existing seed system bottlenecks, seed quality assurance mechanisms, and the capacities and facilities at the seed regulatory laboratories based on existing seed quality assurance bottlenecks. We used scientific literature and information from different databases, such as the Google Scholar, Web of Science, Research Gate, and CGIAR websites. The grey literature was also searched from government documents, project reports, international and national research institution documents, policy documents, seed laws, seed standardization rules, and guidelines emphasizing the seed systems of VPCs and seed QA approaches.

2.4. Seed Regulatory Laboratory Managers and Technician Interviews

Qualitative data were collected from six seed regulatory laboratories in April 2022, five in the Oromia, Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP), and Southwest Ethiopia Peoples (SWEP) regional states and one from the central federal laboratory in Addis Ababa (Figure 1). These three regions were selected because of their potato production potential and their functioning seed regulatory laboratory in the country. Core questions in each seed regulatory laboratory included aspects on seed inspection practices; quality declared assurance practices, major pre- and post-harvest quality assessment practices and methods; laboratory pathogen test procedures; physical infrastructure, and logistical and human capacity limitation. In-depth key informant interviews and discussions with the head of each seed regulatory laboratory and a technician were conducted using a semi-structured check list. The check list was aimed to identify the capacities of the regulatory laboratories with regard to how they are operating the seed quality assurance practices in terms of reliability, accessibility, and quality standards they are following.

2.5. Analytical Framework

Data from all key informant interviews and discussions were entered into MS excel. Both descriptive and content analysis [31,32] based on literature review and expert interview were used for this study. Qualitative content analysis was used for data analysis [20]. Data collection followed three themes: i.e., (i) seed QA practices, (ii) human resource capacity, and (iii) physical infrastructure, logistics, and seed testing facilities of seed regulatory laboratories.

3. Results

3.1. Seed Quality Assurance Practices in Ethiopia

Among the six seed quality assurance laboratories, Ambo in the Oromia region and Welkite in the SNNP region inspected about 45.3 ha seed potato in 2021, mostly as QDS, and approved about 92.7% of the fields inspected (Figure 2). The rejected (7.3%) seed potato fields were mainly due to failure to meet minimum isolation distances and late submission of inspection applications by the seed producers. Neither of the two laboratories, however, conducted latent infection tests, which are important in the certification of seeds of VPCs for controlling seed-borne diseases. The regional laboratories at Duramen, Shashemene, and Bonga only handled seeds of cereals and pulses.

The seed testing laboratory at Ambo attempted to conduct latent pathogen testing using classical pathological techniques by culturing tuber extracts in common agar to detect any bacterial or fungal growth. However, this method is not foolproof since any systemic bacteria or fungi can easily grow on common agar and may not necessarily be pathogenic to potato. Acceptable potato pathogen detection technologies, such as serology or other more molecular-based, sensitive techniques, were not available at the respective laboratories.

The two laboratories that attempted to certify seed potato in 2021 implemented the minimum required standard of three (2 in field and 1 post-harvest) inspections (

Table 1. Major inspection activities conducted at the Ambo and Welkite laboratories before seed potato was certified in the 2021 crop year.

Inspection Stage	Yes/No	Reasons
Early vegetative (30–50 days after planting)	Yes	To check crop emergence status, isolation distance, and varietal purity
Flowering (55–70 days)	Yes	To check off types, insect pests, bacterial diseases, viruses, etc.
Postharvest (in store)	Yes	To assess seed quality, disease presence, mechanical damage, cracking, storage conditions

and Figure 3). The source of seed planted for QDS was also verified by inspectors to determine whether it came from a reliable seed source or by just tracing the source through grower feedback. In many cases, timely inspection of each seed field registered for seed certification was not possible due to logistical constraints, resulting in seed rejection.

Seed potato quality assurance is performed by visual assessment for both field inspection and post-harvest control due to limited capacity in terms of equipment, facilities, reagents, knowledge, and skill. Moreover, the laboratory buildings are not suitable for the intended purpose except at Shashemene. In some laboratories, such as Bonga and Durame, the laboratory facilities were prone to infestation with rodents and other insect pests that could damage the seed samples collected for testing and post-harvest quality control.

3.2. Human Resource Capacity and Gender Disaggregation

The laboratory technicians were assessed on their knowledge and skills in seed quality assurance. It was found that the technicians across the assessed seed testing laboratories have knowledge and skill limitations to properly test seed potato for quality and certification. The two plant pathologists in the organization were B.Sc. holders but had many skill gaps, such as variety and disease symptom identification, disease diagnosis, seed potato inspection standards and procedures and required higher degree training. Knowledge and skill gaps that they mentioned were due to inadequate in-service/refresher training in their respective organizations. One seed certification staff member in the Shashemene laboratory had this to say, “I am not well trained and have knowledge gap in performing seed health testing both at grow out test (GOT) and laboratory level. I also have difficulties in routine seed certification because our team has no crop description guides or crop variety descriptor catalogue to identify true varieties from off-types. We lack field books for disease identification for each crop and other technical field and laboratory guides”. Similarly, the laboratory technicians indicated that they had limited knowledge on crop disease identification and testing to be able to adequately analyze seeds and to advise next level managers or seed producers. Correspondingly, field seed inspectors had many knowledge gaps in inspecting seed potato because they mainly deal with cereals and pulses and consequently have little or no experience with vegetatively propagated crops.

In order to perform seed certification properly, it needs commitment and investment in well-trained human resources. The assessed laboratories together employ 138 people across all the disciplines, including laborers and support staff (

Table 2. Human resource deployment by number in Oromia, SNNP, and SWEP Regions and national seed regulatory laboratories in 2022.

Human Resource	Male	Female	Total	Percent
Zonal laboratory managers	5	0	5	3.6
Seed testing managers	1	0	1	0.7
Seed testing lab technicians	10	7	17	12.3
Field seed inspectors	18	5	23	16.7
Certification officers	0	1	1	0.7
Seed quality controllers	5	2	7	5.1
Product quality inspectors	2	0	2	1.4
Plant pathologist (B.Sc.)	1	1	2	1.4
Human resource managers	3	2	5	3.6
Estate managers	2	0	2	1.4
Planning and evaluation	4	0	4	3.0
Procurement assistants	8	12	20	14.5
Financial inspection and audit	1	2	3	2.2
Support staff	6	6	12	8.7
Records officers	3	2	5	3.6
ICT assistants	1	0	1	0.7
Security guards	10	4	14	10.1
Drivers	10	0	10	7.3
Secretaries	1	3	4	3.0
Total	91 (65.9)	47 (34.1)	138	100

). Among these employees, 8.7% have an M.Sc., 58.7% have a bachelor’s degree, 8.0% are diploma holders, 3.6% have certificates, 16.7% have completed high school, while 4.3% have a primary education level (Figure 4). As far as the educational background of technical staff is concerned, about 38.4% of the field inspectors, seed laboratory technicians, certification experts, seed quality controllers, and product quality inspectors are B.Sc. holders. Ambo and the national seed regulatory laboratories have more M.Sc. holders than the other centers (Figure 4). None of the laboratories has staff in management or operations with a Ph.D.

In terms of human resource deployment by sex disaggregation, 47 (34.1%) staff were female and 91 (65.9%) were male (Table 2). Field seed inspectors, procurement officers, and laboratory technicians, respectively, constituted the highest proportion of the human resource. The procurement function in any organization is very important; however, in the current circumstances, it would be more appropriate to reduce the number of this staff category and recruit more field inspectors and laboratory technicians to reduce their workload, considering the area and the number of seed crops that need to be certified annually.

3.3. Physical Infrastructure, Logistics, and Seed Testing Facilities

This study revealed that only the Shashemene seed laboratory, unlike the others, had a standard laboratory building. The seed laboratories at Bonga, Welkite, and Durame have sub-standard laboratory buildings which were constructed for office accommodation but re-purposed for seed testing. The seed testing facilities at Ambo and Addis Ababa do not have their own laboratory buildings. At Ambo, the laboratory operates in a rented building and incurs annual rental costs of approximately ETB 1.3 million (equivalent to 9997 USD). The central seed testing laboratory at Addis Ababa uses a shared building with other government offices and currently does not conduct any seed certification other than handling plant stock import and export regulation.

Satisfactory seed quality testing, in addition to skilled human resources, requires a minimum investment in laboratory facilities, tools, and equipment. The assessed seed testing laboratories generally lack equipment and tools for scientific testing of seed potato (

Table 3. Laboratory facilities and capacities of seed quality assurance laboratories.

Equipment	Bonga	Welkite	Durame	Shashemene	Ambo	National
Refrigerators	1	2	2	1	2	0
Deep freezers	0	1	0	1	1	2
Oven dries	2	2 (1)	2	5	1	2
Seed counters	2 (1)	2 (2)	2	3 (2)	0	0
Microscopes	2	4 (2)	2 (1)	1	2 (1)	2
Seed potato graders	0	0	0	0	0	0
PCR machines	0	0	0	0	0	1
Centrifuge machine	0	1	0	0	0	0
Shaker/incubators	1	2	0	3	2 (1)	0
ELISA plate reader	0	0	0	0	0	0
BW-ELISA kits	0	0	0	0	0	0
BW & viruses pocket testing kits	1	1	1	3	1	0
Magnifying lens	0	0	2	2	0	0
Analytical balances	0	2	3	2 (1)	1	0
Moisture testers	0	1	1	2	1	0
Autoclaves	1	1 (1)	0	1	1 (1)	0
Laminar flow hoods	1	1	0	0	1	0
Growth chambers	0	2 (2)	0	1	0	0
Grinding machine	0	2 (1)	0	2 (1)	0	0

(X) Numbers in parenthesis refer to faulty and non-functional equipment.

). The core equipment found at the seed regulatory laboratories was mainly used for testing cereal and legume seeds. Equipment and tools specific for seed potato testing were largely missing. Seed potato testing, if any, was performed by visual assessment without equipment or chemical-assisted pathogen detection. Some laboratories, such as Ambo, have stated that they are working on potato QDS and certified seed. However, there is no evidence to verify that their quality assurance practices are formalized, particularly for seed potatoes, given the existing weaknesses in laboratory infrastructure and human resources. The tools and equipment in their laboratory were not appropriate for testing pathogens in seed tubers for certification. Mismatches were observed in some laboratories; for example, the federal lab at Addis Ababa had a PCR machine but lacked a centrifuge (Table 3). This makes the PCR machine redundant unless it has complimentary equipment.

The assessed seed quality control laboratories faced logistical and general capacity challenges. All the six laboratories have budget shortages to efficiently perform the required field inspection and laboratory tests. They also lack transport vehicles, which are critical to meet the demand for seed field inspection in the mandated zones in a timely manner. Each regional seed regulatory laboratory serves 5–8 administrative zones and 1–4 special districts. It is not possible to serve these large production areas with the current limitations in human, financial, and logistical resources. For example, at Durame, the seed laboratory manager of Durame Plant Seed Quality Control Centre said, “We have two functional vehicles, but we are expected to inspect seed in eight administrative zones (Kembata-Tembbaro, Alaba, Gedeo, Wolaiyta, Gamo, Goffa, Konso and South Omo) and four special woredas (Amaro, Burji, Alie and Derashe). In terms of distance by zones from the laboratory, South Omo administrative zone for instance is 750 km from our station and a round trip take at least 1500 km to visit and inspect a seed field”. In a similar way, the Bonga Plant Seed Quality Control Centre of the Southwest Ethiopia people’s region with only one functional vehicle (

Table 4. Logistical and administration capacity of seed regulatory laboratories in Ethiopia in April 2022.

Logistics	Bonga	Welkite	Durame	Shashemene	Ambo	National
Own building	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No
Vehicle (N)	2 (1)	3 (2)	3 (1)	2 (1)	2 (1)	0
Computer	9 (2)	15 (5)	10	13 (3)	14 (2)	1
Printer	6	6	5 (1)	2	6 (2)	1
Photocopier	1	1	1	1	1	1
Scanner	0	0	0	1	2	0
LCD projector	0	0	0	0	1	0

(X) Numbers in parenthesis refer to faulty and non-functional equipment.

) was responsible for six large administrative zones (Kaffa, Sheka, Bench Maji, West Omo, Dawro, and Konta) and a single one-way trip is at least 400 km from Bonga Town, excluding field visits. Laboratory managers further explained that the Certification of Competence (COC), aside from plant imports and seed production, is issued by the Regional Agricultural Inputs Regulatory Authority, while seed certification is managed at the zonal level. The data of registration of seed producers is not immediately transferred to zones. These weak linkages among administrative layers result in delays in planning and the seed certification process, putting the efficiency of each seed regulatory laboratory in question.

3.4. Challenges for Effective Seed Quality Assurance in Ethiopia

Seed quality issues originate from a number of factors, including seed producers, inspectors, agricultural input dealers, the regulatory framework, and the enforcement of the seed laws and regulations in each region. The regulatory laboratories face several administrative and autonomy constraints from federal, regional, zonal, and district offices of agriculture (

Table 5. Operational level challenges reported and observed in the seed quality assurance mechanisms.

Element of Seed Quality Assurance	Challenges Observed
Organization of the seed regulatory authority	- Weak organizational linkages among federal, regional, and zonal levels as well as research and extension services. - COC license issuance is centralized, held by federal or regional authority; zonal labs lack autonomy to issue COC except annual license renewal. - Training programs organized at federal and regional levels are not accessible to seed growers.
Rules and standards	- Rules and standards set in the QDS system do not fulfill the requirements and need periodic refinement.
Data collection for seed quality assurance	- Zonal seed regulatory labs have skill gaps to collect necessary data during field and post-harvest crop inspection. - Proper disease diagnostic tools are lacking in all labs. Inspectors only rely on visual observation to judge the acceptance or rejection of a seed lot.
Decision-making by zonal seed regulatory bodies	- Decisions related to acceptance or rejection of seed potato are based on visual assessments alone. - There is no pathogen test from tubers or soil samples that considers the biology of the potato and approved seed tubers may spread seed-borne diseases to other fields. - Rejected seed tubers are recommended to be used as ware potato with limited follow-up to enforce this.
Enforcement of rules compliance with QDS standards	- The QDS rules allow 10 percent external and 90 percent internal QA with limited follow up and support of local inspectors. - Many seed potato producers violate simple, non-technical procedural rules and regulations leading to needless candidate seed crop rejection.
Communication across seed regulatory authority	- No direct communication between federal and seed regulatory laboratories at zonal level and branch offices. - The seed regulatory laboratories at zonal level could not access resources and extension agents unless they obtained permission from the zone and woreda agriculture office.
Resource for seed quality assurance	- Limited financial and lab facilities to conduct efficient, timely, and reliable seed quality assurance. - Laboratory technicians and field inspectors have skill and knowledge gaps for proper seed inspection and laboratory testing.

). Moreover, there is ambiguity among offices in job descriptions and roles at different hierarchies. This indicates weak coordination along the federal to smallest administrative (kebele) level along the seed regulatory system. The central regulatory laboratory at the federal level also does not have any database system to manage and coordinate the regional seed regulatory laboratories, indicating less information flow across the seed regulatory authority.

4. Discussion

4.1. Seed Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Ethiopia

The availability of clean planting materials and functional seed regulatory systems are indispensable for fostering a sustainable seed production system for vegetatively propagating crops, including potato [33,34]. Hence, to realize the health standards of seed tubers, operationalizing proper quality assurance mechanisms plays a pivotal role and is significant for any well-established seed system. In Tanzania, for example, three quality assurance mechanisms are recognized: certified seed, Quality Declared Seed (QDS), and specialized (non-certified) seed. Among these, the QDS system is considered more sustainable under local farming conditions [20]. In a similar manner, potato seed farmers in Burundi perform group-based quality assurance, where a farmers’ association has initiated internal quality control for seed potatoes [35]. These quality assurance mechanisms are being implemented in different countries for different crops based on their affordability and practicability since each of them seek to meet their national and international seed quality standards. The QDS system is likely to be an appropriate solution for many African countries, as it can help bridge the growing seed demand while addressing the challenges associated with fully implementing formal seed certification systems [7,20]

Ethiopia is promoting farmer seed group cooperatives (FSGCs) and decentralized seed multipliers (DSMs) for seed production, assuming that these groups would fill the seed supply gap for smallholder farmers since well-functioning and responsible seed producer organizations are not in place [7,30]. Nevertheless, the anticipated role of the seed regulatory laboratories to conduct seed quality assurance for organized seed growers and some government institutions are not yet successfully implemented due to many interlinked constraints [21,22]. One possible explanation for this issue is that countries have relied on a government-centered approach to quality control, failing to recognize that government agencies often lack the necessary capacity to effectively oversee quality control for many staple food crops [36]. The seed producers, field inspectors, and laboratory technicians are the critical human resource that plays a vital role in seed quality assurance [21]. However, the total number of field inspectors and laboratory technicians that are engaged directly in field inspection and decision making at seed laboratory level in this study were not adequate in relation to the agro-geographical area to be served. In addition to this, a study by Sulle et al. [34] reported that seed inspectors have knowledge gaps due to limitations in accessing field books and catalogues for pests and crop variety identification. Hence, the seed regulatory laboratories should recruit more people who are knowledgeable about plant pathogens and seed quality assurance systems to be competitive across national and international standards and to provide capacity building programs for seed producers and inspectors.

4.2. Seed Quality Assurance Standards in Ethiopia

This study provided evidence on existing models of seed QA mechanisms in three major potato growing regions of Ethiopia (Oromia, SNNP, and SWEP). It considered the major constraints challenging the seed regulatory system and possible interventions that could be used to develop reliable and accessible seed quality assurance systems in the country. In theory, there is a formal seed system in Ethiopia [21]; however, the scheme is not working properly, and where it exists, it focuses on grain crops excluding VPCs. The seed regulatory laboratories assessed in this study are equipped to conduct purity, moisture content, and germination tests for grain crops but none have appropriate pathogen testing facilities that consider latent infection with bacterial, viral, or fungal diseases for any crop types [7]. Hence, the seed QA standards in seed regulatory laboratories in Ethiopia do not meet the standards for certified or quality declared seed classes due to inadequacy in human, infrastructure, and logistical capabilities. However, the implementation of laws, operating procedures, classification, and quality standards is influenced by the available infrastructure and the capacity of the trained personnel working in the seed system [37]. To overcome these problems, collaborating with partners and establishing pathogen testing facilities and reagents at each laboratory is of crucial importance considering the biological characteristics of the potato crop [38]. In addition to logistical and capacity limitations, laboratory managers noted that the Certificate of Competence (COC) for seed production is issued by the regional agricultural inputs regulatory authority, while seed certification is handled at zonal level. This mismatch in role and functionality contributes to the inefficient task performance at seed regulatory laboratories in the country.

4.3. Implications for Integrated Seed Sector Development

Derived from our preliminary study and the existing seed quality assurance practices in the country, it is possible to identify some implications for government for developing an integrated seed sector for most crops grown in Ethiopia. The literature on existing seed certification processes demonstrates that both external quality assurance and internal quality control practices are being implemented below the required standard and that interventions on basic capacity development are required [21,22]. The accessibility and reliability of the seed QA system in the country is highly constrained by logistics, infrastructure, and human resource capacity limitations [21,34]. We observed that national variety catalogues for inspected crops are not regularly updated and are not accessible to seed regulatory bodies, creating challenges during seed inspections. Studies suggest that a key best practice could involve adopting specialized seed catalogues for major crop varieties. This approach would allow seed inspectors to perform quality assurance activities more effectively, free from biases or conflicts of interest related to seed growers [39]. The challenges within the country’s seed quality assurance system are diverse and complex, making it difficult to address them all at once. Therefore, it is crucial to prioritize intervention points in a phased approach, allowing for gradual resolution of the bottlenecks over time.

To effectively address the seed system bottlenecks in Ethiopia through integrated seed sector development, the government can prioritize several key intervention points. These steps aim to systematically overcome the challenges within the seed system:

• Focus on developing high-yield, disease-resistant seed varieties that are well suited to local conditions.
• Maintaining updated, accessible, and specialized catalogues for crop varieties and agricultural inputs is crucial. This enables inspectors to easily verify the authenticity and quality of seeds during inspections.
• Seed inspectors, regulatory agencies, and other stakeholders should receive regular training on the latest quality assurance practices, seed health, and pest management techniques to ensure informed decision-making.
• Improve extension services to effectively disseminate knowledge about quality assurance, seed management, and innovative practices to farmers.
• Ensure that policies facilitate seed access, distribution, and regulation while also safeguarding farmers’ rights.
• Foster collaboration between the government, private sector, the industry, and NGOs to drive investment and innovation in potato seed systems.
• Establishing a national institutional framework or model to integrate these components into a cohesive system.

5. Conclusions

This paper sought to examine the seed quality assurance mechanisms, practices, and available capacities that the seed health regulatory laboratories possess. The study shows that national coordination specifically for potato seed quality assurance is functioning poorly and is not supported by the Ethiopian Agricultural Authority. The seed potato quality assurance chain faces several challenges, including (i) weak organizational linkages, (ii) limited financial and lab facilities, (iii) knowledge and skills gaps among inspectors and lab technicians, and (iv) conflicts of autonomy and others that affect its functionality, reliability, and accessibility along the seed value chain. Additionally, not having access to resources like vehicles and laboratory and grow-out test facilities can have negative consequences for seed potato quality.

Lastly, we note the absence of both efficient disease testing programs and functional quality assurance practices across seed regulatory laboratories that make the scenario very difficult. Our findings suggest that the seed quality assurance system can be strengthened by adopting and implementing clear standards and regulations; accreditation and certifications; efficient seed and input catalogues; and traceability and transparency. Hence, this paper can guide and align the efforts of policymakers, development partners, and practitioners to ensure improved performance of the seed potato quality assurance practices in Ethiopia and elsewhere with similar contexts by adopting the following: streamlined seed certification processes: digital regulatory platforms; inclusive seed policies; participatory seed development frameworks; and public awareness and education programs across the potato seed value chain.

Likewise, to ensure the reliability, accessibility, and affordability of seed QA approaches, interventions must be pursued to address major system bottlenecks, including (i) human capacity building, (ii) providing adequate resources (competent personnel, funding and the necessary laboratory facilities, like novel and reliable disease diagnostic tools); (iii) strengthening stakeholders linkage across the seed value chain; and (iv) formulating embedded policy, legal, and institutional frameworks.