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Review

Effects of Microplastics on Bioavailability, Persistence and Toxicity of Plant Pesticides: An Agricultural Perspective

by
Kuok Ho Daniel Tang
Department of Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
Agriculture 2025, 15(4), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15040356
Submission received: 6 January 2025 / Revised: 1 February 2025 / Accepted: 5 February 2025 / Published: 7 February 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)
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Abstract

:
Microplastic–pesticide interactions influence pesticide performance, soil health, and environmental safety. This review aims to comprehensively present the effects of microplastic–pesticide interactions on pesticide bioavailability, persistence, and toxicity, along with their agricultural implications on pest control. It reviews more than 90 related articles from established scholarly databases. Most studies indicate that pesticide bioavailability decreases in the presence of microplastics due to adsorption, which is frequently influenced by the hydrophobicity (log Kow) of the pesticides and the surface area and type of microplastics. Higher log Kow results in higher adsorption and lower bioavailability. Aged microplastics have higher surface areas for adsorption, thus reducing pesticide bioavailability. This decreases the effectiveness of systematic and contact pesticides. Lower bioavailability leads to less adsorption of the former by plants to control pest infestation and less contact of the latter with pests in the soil to kill them directly. Higher pesticide adsorption also increases the persistence of pesticides, as indicated by their extended degradation half-lives. However, some studies demonstrate that biodegradable microplastics, especially the aged ones, have less effect on pesticide persistence because they release pesticides for degradation when they break down. Few studies on how microplastics alter pesticide toxicity on target organisms are available, but the available ones point to potentially higher toxicity on crops and beneficial soil organisms. Overall, the review highlights a significant negative effect of microplastics on pesticide bioavailability. This may prompt the application of more pesticides to achieve the desired level of crop protection, which bears cost and environmental consequences.

1. Introduction

The extensive pollution of both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems with microplastics (MPs) has become a major issue within environmental science. MPs are defined as plastic fragments measuring less than 5 mm in size and can either result from the breakdown of larger plastic waste (secondary MPs) or be produced intentionally for specific uses (primary MPs), like in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and industrial applications [1,2]. Owing to their diminutive size, durability, and widespread presence, MPs have been recognized as a global pollutant that can interact with various environmental contaminants, including pesticides [3]. The growing occurrence of MPs prompts serious inquiries regarding their impact on modifying the environmental behavior, bioavailability, persistence, and toxicity of other pollutants, particularly pesticides, which are extensively utilized in both agricultural and urban areas.
Pesticides play a crucial role in agricultural production by protecting crops from pests, diseases, and weeds. However, the extensive use of pesticides has led to their widespread occurrence in soil, water, and biota [4]. Residues of environmental pesticides pose significant risks to non-target organisms, ecosystems, and human health. Pesticides can persist in the environment for extended periods, depending on their chemical properties, environmental conditions, and interactions with other substances [5]. In recent years, the interaction between co-existing MPs and antibiotics has garnered significant attention. MPs can act as vehicles for antibiotics, extending their presence in the environment and aiding in the development and spread of antibiotic-resistance gene [1,6]. Likewise, there has been growing concern that the co-occurrence of MPs and pesticides may exacerbate the environmental risks associated with these contaminants through complex physicochemical interactions. Numerous studies have been conducted to investigate the interactions. For instance, Li et al. studied how reaction time, MP dosages, pH, and NaCl salinity affect the adsorption of imidacloprid, buprofezin, and difenoconazole on polyethylene (PE) MPs in water. Their findings indicated that high pH and low NaCl salinity enhanced adsorption, with capacities ranking as difenoconazole > buprofezin > imidacloprid. High yet environmentally realistic pH (6 to 10) causes the pesticides, particularly buprofezin and difenoconazole, to convert from molecular to ionic state, favoring adsorption [7]. Wang et al. demonstrated that polyamide 6 (PA6) had a higher maximum adsorption capacity for thiacloprid (a neonicotinoid pesticide), reaching 96.49 μg/g, compared to polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT), which had an adsorption capacity of 88.78 μg/g. Moreover, aging enhanced the adsorption of thiacloprid by 5.53% to 15.8%, attributed to the increased specific surface area and decreased contact angle of MPs [8].
Mo et al. investigated how carbofuran and carbendazim are adsorbed onto PE and polypropylene (PP) MPs. Their findings indicated that the adsorption kinetics and thermodynamics were most accurately described by pseudo-second-order kinetics (predominantly chemisorption interactions) and the Freundlich isotherm models (multilayer adsorption with heterogeneous surface energy). The adsorption characteristics of the individual pesticides on both types of MPs were quite similar. Furthermore, the rate and capacity for carbendazim adsorption on PE and PP MPs exceeded those for carbofuran [9]. In their study, Lan et al. revealed that aged agricultural PE MPs exhibited greater adsorption capacities for the pesticides carbendazim, diflubenzuron, malathion, and difenoconazole when compared to original PE MPs. This enhancement is attributed to the greater surface area of aged agricultural PE MPs [10]. Additionally, the adsorption of these pesticides on the aged PE MPs was found to have a positive correlation with their log Kow (water–octanol partition coefficient) values, indicating that hydrophobic partitioning was a significant factor in the adsorption process. Furthermore, there is a possibility of some hydrogen bonding occurring between the secondary amines in the diflubenzuron molecule and the polar oxygen-containing functional groups present on the surface of aged PE MPs [10]. Adsorption on MPs is an important mechanism governing the bioavailability of pesticides in soil.
The interaction between MPs and pesticides, therefore, depends on several factors, including the physical and chemical properties of both MPs and pesticides, as well as environmental conditions [11]. MPs of various polymers differ in their adsorption capacities and affinities for pesticides. The adsorption of pesticides onto MPs is influenced by factors such as MP size, shape, surface area, and the presence of surface functional groups [11]. Similarly, the chemical structure and hydrophobicity of pesticides play a crucial role in determining their interactions with MPs. Environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, salinity, and organic matter content, can further modulate these interactions, influencing the fate and transport of MPs and pesticides in the environment [12].
Studies have also examined how MPs and pesticides alter soil properties. MPs could alter soil structure by changing bulk density, porosity, and water-holding capacity. Research indicates that MPs have an adverse impact on soil structure and cohesion [13,14]. Studies show that the impact of MPs on the bulk density of soil varies based on the type, shape, and concentration of the MPs [15,16,17]. Specifically, de Souza Machado et al. observed that incorporating polyester (PES) microfibers, polyacrylic fibers, PE pieces, and polyamide (PA) beads resulted in a reduction of soil bulk density, with PES microfibers having the most pronounced effects that were also dose-dependent [15]. Likewise, MPs can alter the capacity, availability, and movement of water in the soil, though the impact varies based on the type, shape, size, and composition of the MPs. For instance, PES MPs can enhance the ability of soil to retain water and improve its availability, which can encourage plant growth and help alleviate drought conditions [16]. Numerous studies have investigated how soil MPs influence the accumulation of soil organic matter. Their findings vary widely, showing results that range from inhibition [18,19] to enhancement [20], or indicating no significant effect [21]. Research also indicates that MPs present in soil can influence soil nutrients in negative, neutral, or positive ways. In a rice paddy soil contaminated with 1% (w/w) polyvinyl chloride (PVC) MPs, the levels of available nitrogen in the soil were found to decrease by 10% to 13%, while the levels of available phosphorus dropped by approximately 30% [22]. Conversely, another research indicated that 0.2% (w/w) MPs did not impact the soil’s nutrient availability [21]. Similarly, the effects of MPs on soil microorganisms vary, with some studies suggesting an enhancing effect [23,24], while others show negligible or negative effects [25,26]. The presence of MPs like PP [27], polyurethane [28], PVC, and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) [29,30] leads to heightened levels of urease and phosphatase activities in soils. The impact of 20 different commercial pesticides on nitrogen microbial cycling was not influenced by dosage levels but varied depending on the soil type. Specifically, the fungicides azoxystrobin and flutriafol, along with the insecticide fipronil and the herbicide chlorsulfuron significantly decreased the potential nitrification and β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminidase activity in alkaline loam soil characterized by low organic carbon levels [31].
Multiple reviews are dedicated to illustrating MP–pesticide interactions. Barreto et al. present a review of existing research on the relationships between MPs and pesticides, focusing on how these interactions influence their toxic effects [11]. Junaid et al. provided a summary of research focused on how pesticides adhere to MPs and the various factors that influence this adsorption process [32]. Yu et al. offer a comprehensive review of how MPs function as both temporary reservoirs for organic micropollutants and as significant contributors to their prevalence by releasing plastic additives. The discussion focuses on several key areas: the processes of adsorption and desorption, various environmental factors that influence these processes, and the ecotoxicological impacts involved. Their review covers micropollutants in general, including pesticides [33]. Reviews on the interactions between MPs and inorganic pollutants, particularly heavy metals, are also available. MPs are generally found to adsorb heavy metals from the environment [34]. When MPs become aged or biofouled, their adsorption of metals generally increases, and certain types of MP polymers have a more selective ability to bind specific metals [35,36].
With few reviews focusing on how the interactions between MPs and pesticides alter their bioavailability, persistence, and toxicity, this review aims to fill in the gap by systematically presenting the effects of MP–pesticide interactions on the bioavailability, persistence, and toxicity of pesticides. It also discusses the agricultural implications associated with these effects, particularly those on pest control. Unlike the extant reviews, which focus primarily on how MPs interact with pesticides, particularly the sorption mechanisms and the factors affecting these interactions, this review has the novelty of synthesizing the effects of these interactions on the agricultural application of pesticides. It contributes to a better understanding of how MPs affect the behaviors of pesticides, hence their impacts on crops, pests, and agronomic practices.

2. Methodology for Literature Review

The narrative review involved a systematic literature search using reputable scientific databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, and ScienceDirect. The keywords and search terms included combinations of microplastics, plastic pollution, pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, bioavailability, persistence, degradation, adsorption, and toxicity. Boolean operators (AND/OR) were employed to refine the search. Examples of the combinations were: (1) (“microplastics” OR “plastic pollution”) AND (“pesticides” OR “herbicides” OR “fungicides” OR “insecticides”, (2) (“microplastics” AND “bioavailability” AND “pesticides”), and (3) (“microplastics” AND “persistence” AND “pesticides”). The inclusion criteria are: (1) the articles must be peer-reviewed and written in English; (2) the articles must have been published within the last 10 years, with priority given to those published within the last 5 years; (3) the articles must indicate the implications of MP–pesticide interactions on the bioavailability, persistence, or toxicity of pesticides; and (4) the effects on toxicity must focus on target organisms to permit discussion of the agricultural implications. Studies that focus solely on MP–pesticide interactions and the influencing factors and on general ecotoxicity were excluded. Figure 1 shows the flowchart of the literature review process.

3. Types of Pesticides

Pesticides refer to chemicals utilized in farming to manage unwanted organisms, such as insects, weeds, fungi, and various other entities that can damage crops [4]. These substances are categorized according to the type of pests they target, their chemical makeup, and how they operate. Insecticides are employed to manage pests and usually consist of organophosphates like malathion and chlorpyrifos, pyrethroids such as cypermethrin and permethrin, and neonicotinoids, including imidacloprid and thiamethoxam [37]. Herbicides either kill or obstruct weed growth. Selective herbicides, such as glyphosate, focus on particular weeds, whereas non-selective herbicides, like paraquat, eliminate all vegetation. Pre-emergent herbicides are used before weeds begin to germinate, with atrazine serving as a notable example [37]. Fungicides prevent or eliminate fungal diseases. Examples of fungicides are azoxystrobin, tebuconazole, and mancozeb. Pesticides can also be categorized based on the mode of action [38]. Systemic pesticides, such as imidacloprid, are absorbed by plants and transported throughout their tissues, targeting pests that feed on the plant. Contact pesticides, like pyrethroids, kill pests on direct contact. Some stable pesticides have long residual effects, allowing them to continuously act on pests over an extended duration [38].
Over the past decade, global pesticide use has gradually increased. By 2021, pesticide use worldwide reached approximately 3.69 million metric tons. The pesticide application rate averaged 2.37 kg per hectare of cropland by 2022 in comparison to 1.23 kg per hectare in 1990 (Figure 2). This represents a significant rise compared to earlier years, driven by growing agricultural demands and the intensification of farming practices. Usage trends vary by region, with higher pesticide application rates in countries like Brazil and China due to extensive agriculture [39].
The environmental pervasiveness of MPs has altered the behaviors of pesticides in multiple ways, depending on their modes of action. Recent studies on the effects of MPs on pesticides focus mostly on fungicides, followed by insecticides [40,41,42,43]. A summary of the common pesticides studied and their modes of action are summarized in Table 1. Table S1 in Supplementary Materials shows the chemical structure of the pesticides and the common MPs used in their interaction studies. The most frequently studied pesticides are azoxystrobin (fungicide), chlorpyrifos (insecticide), and atrazine (herbicide) [41,44,45]. Notable fungicides with significant residual effects include tebuconazole, difenoconazole, flutriofol, and fluxapyroxad due to their relatively longer degradation half-lives. The insecticides showing considerable residual effects are fipronil, bifenthrin, lufenuron, pyriproxyfen, and chlorpyrifos. Substantial residual effects are observed in herbicides such as atrazine, simazine, metolachlor, terbuthylazine, and trifluralin.

4. Effects on Pesticide Bioavailability

The bioavailability of pesticides refers to the extent to which a pesticide is accessible to organisms or biological systems, such as plants, microbes, or animals, for absorption, uptake, or interaction. It determines how effectively a pesticide can exert its intended effects, such as killing pests or controlling weeds, and it also influences the pesticide’s potential for environmental contamination and toxicity [46]. The sorption/desorption of pesticides from MPs could affect their bioavailability. Therefore, the factors influencing pesticide sorption by MPs also impact their bioavailability. These factors encompass the physicochemical characteristics of MPs—including surface area, aging extent, hydrophobicity, and polymer type—and environmental factors like pH, temperature, ionic strength, and dissolved organic matter [40]. The surface area of MPs is typically determined by the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis involving measuring specific surface area based on gas adsorption or observation with scanning electron microscopy for surface roughness, cracks, and pores before and after aging. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy is used to identify chemical changes in polymer structure after aging [47]. Bioavailability can also be indicated by the bioaccumulation of pesticides in target organisms under the influence of MPs [48].
A study investigated how three strobilurins (fungicides)—azoxystrobin, picoxystrobin, and pyraclostrobin—adsorb onto polystyrene (PS) and PE, with an emphasis on their impact on the residual behavior and bioavailability of pyraclostrobin [42]. The findings showed that MPs exhibited strong adsorption for all three compounds, with pyraclostrobin demonstrating the highest adsorption capacity, correlating with their log Kow values (3.09, 3.83, and 4.23 for azoxystrobin, picoxystrobin, and pyraclostrobin, respectively). PS performed slightly better than PE in terms of adsorption [42]. The presence of MPs reduced the concentration of strobilurins in water and modified their residual behaviors, notably reducing pyraclostrobin levels due to its adsorption onto MPs. Bioavailability assessments revealed that the extent of pyraclostrobin’s adsorption to MPs greatly affected its presence in black bean seedlings [42,49].
The uptake of fungicides like metalaxyl, azoxystrobin, and tebuconazole by PE MPs and soil was also significantly influenced by their log Kow, parallel to the findings of Hai et al. [41,42]. When 5% PE MPs were added, there was a marked increase in the adsorption of the highly hydrophobic fungicides azoxystrobin and tebuconazole in the soil, as these compounds showed a greater tendency to bind to PE MPs rather than the soil itself. Conversely, this enhancement was minimal for the more hydrophilic fungicide metalaxyl (log Kow = 1.75) [41]. The presence of PE MPs in the soil enhanced the adsorption of azoxystrobin (log Kow = 2.5) and tebuconazole (log Kow = 3.7), reducing the bioavailable fractions of these fungicides, especially in the soil pore water (Figure 3). Consequently, this extended their persistence in the soil and diminished the absorption of these chemicals by maize plants [41] (Figure 3). Additionally, PE MPs demonstrated a greater impact on minimizing the dissipation and bioaccumulation of tebuconazole in contrast to azoxystrobin. This difference is likely due to the enhanced ability of PE MPs to promote the adsorption of tebuconazole, which possesses a higher log Kow value [41,50].
A study examined the adsorption of diethofencarb and pyrimethanil by polyethylene terephthalate (PET), PS, PVC, and polylactic acid (PLA) MPs [51]. The adsorption rates of these two pesticides were quicker in a binary mixture, consistent with pseudo-second-order kinetics, driven mainly by chemical adsorption and available adsorption sites. Pesticides with greater hydrophobicity (diethofencarb with an oil-water partition coefficient of 2.91 versus 2.48 for pyrimethanil) exhibited quicker adsorption rates and increased adsorption capacities [51]. Additionally, the adsorption dynamics are characterized by both competition and synergy when both pesticides are present together [51,52]. The results indicate that the hydrophobicity of pesticides tends to have greater impacts on their adsorption rate and capacity by MPs, hence bioavailability, compared to the type of MPs. Furthermore, the aging of MPs substantially enhances pesticide adsorption and lowers their bioavailability.
The quantity of thiacloprid, a neonicotinoid pesticide, released from PA6 and PBAT MPs in a simulated intestinal environment was observed to be 1.36 times greater than pure water for both types [8]. This suggests that thiacloprid becomes more bioavailable upon entering the gastrointestinal tract. In soil, the bioavailability of thiacloprid was measured with the diffusive gradient in thin films (DGT), typically comprising a diffusive layer of hydrogel or membrane that controls the diffusion of pollutants, a binding layer that binds to the pollutant diffusing through the device, and a protective layer preventing large particles and soil debris from entering [8,53]. The time-integrated concentration (CDGT) indicates the bioavailability of the pollutant [54]. The presence of PA6 and PBAT enhanced thiacloprid bioavailability in red soil (with sand as the predominant component), while only PA6 enhanced thiacloprid bioavailability in black soil (predominantly clay and silt). The presence of MPs can influence the bioavailability of pollutants in soil for several reasons, such as altering thiacloprid distribution through various adsorption and desorption processes [8]. Another factor is that MPs can change the physicochemical properties of the soil and occupy its adsorption sites, leading to increased instability of contaminants and a higher likelihood of uptake by plants and animals [16,55].
MPs have been observed to dissipate atrazine in soil. Within 7 days of application, atrazine concentrations significantly dropped by 68.14% to 91.62%, while the control group without MPs showed a mere 16.27% reduction [45]. After 14 days, the atrazine dissipation rates in soils treated with MPs ranged from 87.09% to 94.27%, showing a stabilization trend over time, in contrast to the control group without MPs, which exhibited only a 30.11% dissipation rate. Both PE and PET MPs notably enhanced atrazine dissipation in soil. The dissipation followed a first-order kinetic model [45]. After 14 days of cultivation, the levels of atrazine in maize roots, stems, and leaves were measured. In the presence of PE and PET MPs, the atrazine concentrations in maize roots were between 0.06 and 0.13 mg/kg and from 0.08 to 0.12 mg/kg, respectively, both of which were significantly lower compared to the levels found in the treatment without MPs [45] (Figure 3).
MPs exhibited greater adsorption coefficients and capacities for amide herbicides (acetochlor or napropamide) than other naturally occurring materials. Ni et al. showed that the sorption capacity of amide herbicides onto the biodegradable PBAT MPs had a KF (adsorption coefficient) range of 303.53 to 801.56 (mg/kg) (mg/L)n, which was significantly higher than the sorption on soils with KF values between 0.22 and 66.20 (mg/kg) (mg/L)n, and on clay or sand, with KF values between 5.70 and 34.80 (mg/kg) (mg/L)n. The KF range was also higher than that of non-biodegradable MPs (33.5 to 202.56 (mg/kg) (mg/L)n) [56]. Therefore, it implies that MPs, particularly biodegradable ones, would induce a greater vector effect for leftover amide herbicides than other typical environmental media [57]. The greater adsorption also indicates that these MPs, typically from plastic items used in agriculture, could decrease the herbicides available to targeted weeds (Figure 3). Additionally, Gong et al. found that the rates at which biodegradable PLA and polybutylene succinate (PBS) MPs adsorbed fipronil were significantly greater compared to PE, PP, PS, and PVC [58]. They also established that the capacity of fipronil adsorption onto MPs ranked in the following order: PBS > PLA > PP > PE > PS > PVC [58].
MPs from PE mulch films were reported to contain lower levels of pesticide residues (a mixture of acetamiprid, azoxystrobin, bifenthrin, carbenzapim, chlorantraniliprole, cyprodinil, difenoconazole, etofenprox, fenazaquin, fluopyram, flutriafol, fluxapyroxad, lufenuron, myclobutanil, pyridaben, pyridalyl, pyridate, and pyriproxifen) due to a higher rate of desorption/release (median desorption of 71.86 μg/L; approximately 50%) than MPs from PBAT mulch films [59]. PBAT mulch films retained more pesticide residues on their surfaces because of a significantly reduced desorption rate, with a median desorption of 24.27 μg/L (around 17%) after application. The effect of increased surrounding temperature on the total desorption levels was negligible for both PE (median values of 65.27 μg/L and 74.23 μg/L at 20 °C and 40 °C, respectively) and PBAT (median values of 24.26 μg/L and 24.78 μg/L at 20 °C and 40 °C, respectively) mulch films [59]. Nevertheless, higher temperatures did promote a quicker desorption rate in PE films. The desorption levels for both PBAT and PE plastic types were found to be significantly linked to the log Kow value. Pesticides were predominantly retained by plastic films when the log Kow value exceeded approximately 3.3 for PE film and about 2.8 for PBAT film [59]. Notably, azoxystrobin, which has a log Kow value of 2.5, demonstrated significant desorption from PE mulch film, but it did not desorb from PBAT film. This discrepancy is likely attributed to the variations in surface functional groups between the two types of films [59,60].
Córdoba et al. investigated the migration of chlorpyrifos, procymidone, and trifluralin from PE and biodegradable (Mater-Bi) mulching films [61]. Results showed that desorption of trifluralin and chlorpyrifos was greater from PE mesoplastics compared to Mater-Bi under all tested conditions. Both pesticides exhibited increased migration as temperatures rose from 25 °C to 40 °C. Conversely, an increase in soil moisture from 30% to 60% led to a decrease in pesticide desorption [61]. For procymidone, the migration from both PE and Mater-Bi at 25 °C was consistent across different soil moisture levels. At 40 °C and 30% soil humidity, migration percentages were comparable for the two mulch films. However, with higher soil moisture (60%), migration from Mater-Bi surpassed that from PE [61]. A direct relationship was noted between migration percentage and the vapor pressure of the pesticides, with migration rates increasing alongside higher vapor pressures, suggesting a potential vapor-phase migration mechanism. Furthermore, enhanced pesticide migration occurred at elevated temperatures (40 °C), while the reduction in migration due to soil humidity was notably more pronounced at lower moisture levels (30%) [61,62].
Research into triazole fungicides revealed that their adsorption kinetics on PS MPs aligned with the pseudo-second-order, and their adsorption isotherms fitted the Freundlich models [40]. The ranking of adsorption capacity among the fungicides was hexaconazole > myclobutanil > triadimenol, which correlated positively with the log Kow of the pesticides. After two rounds of desorption, the desorption rates were observed in the order of triadimenol > myclobutanil > hexaconazole, which was contrary to the log Kow trend [40]. This indicates that higher adsorption capacity correlates with lower desorption rates. Although hexaconazole had a slower desorption rate, the total amount desorbed was greater. In natural ecosystems, MPs can adsorb various organic contaminants, and the reduced desorption rates may impede the biodegradation of these adsorbed substances [63,64]. Additionally, factors like a reduction in the size of PS particles, variations in solution pH, and increases in salt ion concentration all play a role in enhancing adsorption capacity [65].
In a study by Junck et al., it was found that the adsorption of terbutylazine on aged PE MPs was significantly lower than on new particles [66]. This decrease in sorption is attributed to aging, which leads to the development of oxygen-rich functional groups, diminishing hydrophobic properties, and the formation of negatively charged areas on oxidized surfaces [1,67]. For newly prepared PE MP, the sorption kinetics were best characterized by a pseudo-second-order model, whereas for aged PE MP, the kinetics indicated intra-particle diffusion due to the formation of cracks and pores [66]. The sorption process declined as pH increased and became less efficient with rising temperatures. The low desorption rate indicated a strong binding interaction. Nonetheless, thermodynamic analyses suggest that higher temperatures, potentially a consequence of climate change, could facilitate the re-release of terbutylazine from aged PE MPs back into the environment [66,68]. In contrast to the lower adsorption of terbutylazine on aged MPs observed by Junck et al., Zhang et al. reported that aged PE and PBAT MPs possess higher adsorption capacity (an increase of 37.5 to 40.7% for PBAT MPs and 44.2 to 72.3% for PE MPs) for neonicotinoids [43,66]. Furthermore, according to Lan et al., aged agricultural PE MPs showed a higher capacity for adsorbing carbendazim, diflubenzuron, malathion, and difenoconazole compared to original PE MPs [10]. This improvement is due to the larger surface area of the aged agricultural PE MPs.
In aquatic environments, 2−50 g/L of PE MPs were found to reduce the residues of eight different pesticides, including atrazine, azoxystrobin, epoxiconazole, metolachlor, myclobutanil, simazine, tebuconazole, and terbuthylazine [69]. For instance, in the presence of 10 g/L PE MPs, the residual level of epoxiconazole after 21 days was 37 µg/L (versus 61 µg/L in control). Significant declines in pesticide residual concentrations were observed at 10–50 g/L of PE MPs. The adsorption isotherms demonstrated a linear pattern, suggesting that the process was primarily influenced by the partitioning into the larger polymer matrix [69]. The data on desorption kinetics indicated that the desorption followed a pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Additionally, MP aging had no notable impact on their interaction with the pesticides [69,70].
Nie et al. studied the effects of various PS MPs, specifically PS, PS-NH3+, and PS-COO− on the behavior of 14C-labeled Dufulin, a new antiviral pesticide, in hydroponically grown tomato plants [71]. The findings indicated that the presence of these MPs significantly hindered the tomato plant growth (18.4% to 30.2% growth reductions). When compared to the control group, PS, PS-NH3+, and PS-COO− MPs decreased the bioaccumulation of Dufulin in the entire tomato plants by 34.5%, 26.1%, and 40.3%, respectively. Additionally, these MPs affected the movement of Dufulin within the plant tissues, resulting in decreases of 26.5%, 15.7%, and 38.7% for PS, PS-NH3+, and PS-COO− MPs, respectively [71]. Notably, PS-COO− had a significantly stronger inhibitory effect on Dufulin levels in tomatoes compared to the control group, possibly attributed to the strong binding affinity between PS-COO− and Dufulin. This may lead to a lower dietary risk associated with consuming hydroponic tomatoes. However, it also reduced Dufulin bioavailability and a potential reduction of the pesticide’s effect on the targeted pest [71].
Nonetheless, a study indicated that the presence of PS and PVC MPs did not significantly impact thiacloprid bioavailability in soil [72]. Results from hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin extraction confirmed this finding. Additionally, batch sorption experiments demonstrated that the adsorption capacity of thiacloprid in soil was similar regardless of the presence of MPs, with KF values ranging from 3.44 to 3.77 [72].

5. Effects on Pesticide Persistence

Persistence describes the duration a pesticide stays active within the environment, including in soil, water, and air or on vegetation, until it decomposes into less harmful or inactive substances. It indicates the period the pesticide can impact its surroundings after being applied. Usually, persistence is measured through the half-life (T½), which signifies the time required for half of the pesticide to decompose [73].
An examination into the breakdown processes of chlorpyrifos at concentrations of 6 mg/kg and 12 mg/kg in soils containing varying amounts of PLA MPs ranging from 0.0% to 1.0% w/w showed that the degradation of chlorpyrifos adhered to a first-order decay model and the half-lives were in the range of 11.0–14.8 days, depending on the amount of PLA MPs added [74]. The degradation of chlorpyrifos at 6 mg/kg was notably inhibited in soil when 1.0% PLA MPs were introduced. The breakdown of chlorpyrifos resulted in a significant short-term increase in phosphorus (P) availability within 3 to 7 days, showing a peak range of 22.55 to 26.01 mg/kg for Olsen-P content and a peak range of 4.63 to 6.76% for the available P fractions. After this peak, the levels returned to baseline (11.28–19.52 mg/kg for Olsen-P and 4.15–5.61% for available soil P fractions) [74]. It appeared that chlorpyrifos broke down into inorganic phosphates, which could enhance the availability of P in the soil. MPs and chlorpyrifos exhibited opposing effects on certain P fractions. In the first 14 days, the impact of MPs on easily labile P fractions and labile P fractions was significant. Subsequently, these fractions were considerably influenced by chlorpyrifos. One possible explanation is that PLA MPs can alter the composition of soluble and adsorbed P fractions by offering various types and amounts of P sorption sites [18]. As chlorpyrifos degrades in the later phases, organic phosphorus that is bound may enter the soil, becoming moderately labile P [75].
The co-existence of PE MPs could greatly extend the degradation half-lives of atrazine, azoxystrobin, epoxiconazole, metolachlor, myclobutanil, simazine, tebuconazole, and terbuthylazine in aquatic environments [76] (Figure 3). This phenomenon is especially significant for pesticides characterized by moderate rates of degradation and elevated log Kow values. For instance, the half-life of terbuthylazine was notably increased from 31.8 days to 45.2 days when exposed to a concentration of 10 g/L of MPs [69]. A different study found that thiamethoxam had half-lives of 57.7 days to 86.6 days in biodegradable MPs (PBS and polycaprolactone (PCL)) and soil treatments, 86.6 days to 173.3 days in nondegradable MPs (PVC, PE, and LDPE) and soil treatments, and 115 days in the soil only treatment [77]. These findings suggest that biodegradable MPs facilitate the breakdown of thiamethoxam, whereas nondegradable MPs slow down its degradation in soil. Introducing biodegradable MPs might impact soil microbial activity, diversity, community dynamics, or organization [78]. Additionally, these MPs could supply a substantial amount of nutrients to soil microbes, thus greatly influencing the degradation processes of thiamethoxam in the soil.
The research conducted by Guo et al. demonstrated that MPs notably decreased the half-life of atrazine in soil, reducing it to between 17.69 and 21.86 days, in contrast to the control group (23.91 days) [45]. A study revealed that the binding of imidazolinone herbicides (imazamox, imazapic, and imazethapyr) to MPs involves both chemical and physical interactions [79]. In degradation experiments, MPs substantially prolonged the persistence of herbicides in aquatic environments, from 86.6–231 days in the control to 346.5–886.2 days in water. In sediment samples, the half-lives of the herbicide enantiomers were between 99 and 138.6 days when MPs were present, compared to 63–99 days in control samples [79]. While no pronounced stereoselective degradation was observed for the three herbicides in these media, a notable stereoselective degradation of imazapic was detected in water with MPs present. The findings from the water–sediment microcosm experiments demonstrated that MPs significantly influence stereoselectivity in the degradation and distribution of imazapic in both water and combined water–sediment environments; however, they had minimal impact on the stereoselective behavior of imazamox and imazethapyr in such systems [79]. Additionally, the microcosm experiments suggested that herbicides can be distributed between water and MPs, indicating that MPs could alter the persistence and distribution of herbicides in aquatic ecosystems.
MPs from PE and PLA enhanced the soil’s ability to adsorb 3,5-dichloroaniline and extended its degradation half-life by 6.24 days and 16.07 days, respectively [80]. In comparison, the adsorption capacity of soil with 2% PE MPs for 3,5-dichloroaniline was similar to that of the control soil. In contrast, the soil containing 2% PLA MPs showed a significantly higher adsorption capacity, ranked as follows: soil with 2% PLA MPs > soil with 2% PE MPs > control. The degradation of 3,5-dichloroaniline in the soil followed a first-order kinetic model [80]. The introduction of MPs led to a reduction in the residues of 3,5-dichloroaniline in the soil and its availability for biological uptake, consequently resulting in an increased persistence of 3,5-dichloroaniline within the soil environment [81].
Wu et al. observed original LDPE mulch MPs to facilitate the breakdown of imidacloprid and flumioxazin, reducing their degradation half-lives to 0.93 and 0.85 times shorter, respectively [82]. At higher concentrations, the effects waned. In contrast, aged LDPE mulch MPs and biodegradable PBAT mulch MPs slowed down the degradation, leading to an increase in half-lives of imidacloprid to 1.64 times and flumioxazin to 1.21 times longer. These changes became more pronounced with higher concentrations of MPs and pesticides [82]. Certain findings indicate that MPs can greatly impede the breakdown of pesticides in aquatic environments, resulting in increased persistence of these chemicals in water [69,79]. Others indicate that incorporating MPs may not significantly influence the breakdown of certain pesticides in soil within a short timeframe. However, it could affect microbial activity in the soil, depending on the types of pesticides involved [72,83].
Xu et al. found that introducing three varieties of MPs, which included PS fragments and PVC beads (PVC-42000 and PVC-10), into the soil at concentrations that are ecologically relevant (0.2% and 1.0%) did not significantly affect the breakdown of thiacloprid, irrespective of the type of and amount of MPs used [72]. The half-life of thiacloprid dissipation in soil without MPs was found to be 1.51 days, corresponding to a rate constant of 0.46 per day. The half-lives were 1.58 days in the presence of 0.2% PS fragments, 1.47 days in the presence of PVC-42000, and 1.69 days in the presence of PVC-10, with the rate constants ranging from 0.41 to 0.47 per day. Furthermore, when the concentration of PS fragments increased from 0.2% to 1%, the half-lives of 1.58 and 1.65 days were noted [72]. It can be concluded the half-lives and rate constants were similar across all treatments, regardless of the size, type, or concentration of the MPs. Additionally, Yang et al. provided evidence that glyphosate breakdown in Chinese loess soil occurred gradually and adhered to a first-order decay kinetics model. Across various treatments, whether with or without the addition of PP MPs, the half-lives of glyphosate remained comparable at 32.8 days [83].
According to Ju et al., original LDPE MPs showed minimal impact on the breakdown of both chlorpyrifos and difenoconazole [44]. A high desorption rate of chlorpyrifos from these original LDPE MPs likely contributes to their limited effect on chlorpyrifos degradation in soil. Additionally, these original LDPE MPs demonstrated a low capacity for difenoconazole adsorption, which may clarify their negligible influence on difenoconazole breakdown [44]. This aligns with Lan et al., who also reported a lower adsorption capacity for difenoconazole on PE MPs than chlorpyrifos, even though both pesticides have similar hydrophobicity [10]. However, aged LDPE MPs significantly reduced chlorpyrifos dissipation in soil, which can be linked to the enhanced adsorption capacity of the LDPE MPs after aging, probably because of increased specific surface area and more functional groups [10]. Furthermore, the development of biofilms on MPs might also improve pollutant adsorption by these materials [6,84,85]. An opposite trend was observed in biodegradable MPs (85% PBAT + 10%PLA), where original biodegradable MPs significantly retarded the breakdown of chlorpyrifos and difenoconazole compared to aged biodegradable MPs [10]. Biodegradable MPs can break down in the soil as they age, which might hinder their engagement with pesticides while promoting the release of these chemicals [86].

6. Effects on Pesticide Toxicity

The interactions of MPs with pesticides could potentially alter the toxicity of pesticides on the targeted pests and crops [87]. This section focuses on how MPs alter the toxicity of pesticides on pests, weeds, and crops to synthesize the agricultural implications.
The EC50 values, which indicate the pesticide concentrations required to reduce the bioluminescence of Aliivibrio fischeri to 50% of its original intensity, for diethofencarb and pyrimethanil were found to fall between 10 and 20 mg/L [51]. When respective solutions containing PVC, PS, and PET MPs adsorbed with these pesticides were combined with the bacterial solution, there was no significant difference in bioluminescence intensity compared to the solution containing only the pesticides [51]. This finding demonstrated that once adsorption occurred, it did not substantially increase the activity of diethofencarb and pyrimethanil, nor did it enhance their acute toxicity toward A. fischeri.
A biotoxicity assessment was conducted to investigate the impact of five different MPs (PS, heat-aged PS, UV-aged PS, biologically aged PS, and PS subjected to multiple aging processes) on the growth of E. coli. The pure E. coli bacteria were diluted and introduced into the Luria–Bertani (LB) medium. Subsequently, an MP solution (1 mg/mL) was incorporated into the LB medium. These mixtures were then placed in a biological incubator set at 37 °C. Throughout this incubation period, samples were collected at three-hour intervals, and the optical density of the bacterial solution at 600 nm, which reflects bacterial concentration, was measured using a spectrophotometer [88]. This evaluation occurred before and after the adsorption of three herbicides: simazine, metribuzin, and terbutryn. The results revealed significant variations in the effects of the MPs when tested individually, as well as in conjunction with the herbicides, concerning the optical density at 600 nm (OD 600) of E. coli after a growth period of 12 h compared to the control group [88]. All five MPs demonstrated inhibitory effects on E. coli growth both before and following the adsorption of the herbicides, with the toxicity observed in the MPs after herbicide adsorption being markedly greater than in those without herbicides.
Glyphosate (5–50 mg/L) was shown to significantly decrease the growth rate, photosynthetic efficiency, and root activity of the freshwater weed Salvinia cucullata [89]. On the other hand, PS MPs (3–75 mg/L) did not have a notable effect on photosynthesis or leaf structure but substantially decreased the growth and root function of S. cucullata. This suggests that the impact of MPs on aquatic plants may vary depending on which plant parts are exposed to the pollutants. Additionally, synergistic effects were only noted in the form of increased leaf yellowing when S. cucullata was subjected to both glyphosate (≥ 25 mg/L) and MPs (≥15 mg/L) at high levels [89].
Zhang et al. discovered that simultaneous exposure to neonicotinoids and MPs led to more significant suppression of E. coli growth compared to individual exposure [43]. When original PE MPs were exposed alongside imidacloprid and dinotefuran, the inhibition rates were found to be 22.37% and 23.2% higher, respectively, than those observed with PBAT MPs, which exhibited rates of 19.22% and 15.74%. Additionally, aged MPs demonstrated increased toxicity when paired with neonicotinoids, with the inhibition rates for aged PE MPs exposed to imidacloprid and dinotefuran rising to 36.31% and 35.44%, while aged PBAT MPs reached 37.66% and 38.75% [43]. This enhancement in toxicity is attributed to the ability of aged MPs to absorb higher amounts of neonicotinoids, thus increasing their harmful effects on E. coli in their presence. Furthermore, the germination rate serves as another critical measure for assessing the toxicity of external contaminants [90]. Only 18.33% of lettuce seeds germinated when original PE MPs were present along with imidacloprid (versus 27.58% with imidacloprid alone), and 25% of seeds germinated when in combination with dinotefuran (versus 48.27% with dinotefuran alone). In contrast, the germination rates for PBAT MPs were 16.67% with imidacloprid and 28.33% with dinotefuran. For aged PE MPs, the germination rates fell to 16.67% and 23.33% with imidacloprid and dinotefuran, respectively. The aged PBAT MPs showed rates of 16.67% and 26.67% [90]. This decrease can largely be attributed to the fact that aged MPs tend to adsorb more neonicotinoids than their original counterparts, thereby worsening their detrimental impact on germination [47].
While earthworms are not target organisms in pesticide applications, they are essential to agriculture. They enhance soil health, fertility, and structure, which leads to better crop productivity [91]. Individual exposure to imidacloprid (0.1–1 mg/kg) or PE MPs was reported to not significantly elevate the acute toxicity levels in earthworms compared to simultaneous exposure to both substances [92]. However, it did notably hinder weight gain and led to more severe epidermal damage in the earthworms, particularly influenced by particle size. Specifically, the 10 μm PE MPs combined with imidacloprid demonstrated the most pronounced toxic effects. Moreover, this combined exposure resulted in reduced activity of antioxidant enzymes and caused oxidative harm to the earthworms [92].
Additionally, Gautam et al. found that PE MPs did not significantly affect the survival and reproduction rates of earthworms [93]. Carbendazim exposure, however, significantly reduced earthworms’ survival, reproduction, and cocoon and hatchling numbers. Combining lower doses of PE MPs and carbendazim led to a significant drop in biomass, indicating a potential interaction effect [93]. Furthermore, simultaneous exposure triggered synergistic reactions, ranging from oxidative stress to alterations in critical organs like the body wall, intestines, and reproductive systems. A comparison of various indicators showed that the seminal vesicles and ovarian follicles were the most affected during the combined exposure [93].
Similarly, certain soil arthropods may play a role in soil health. A study investigated the impact of different concentrations of chlorpyrifos (ranging from 0.0088–0.8 mg/kg dry soil for springtails, Folsomia candida, and 0.2–3.9 mg/kg dry soil for woodlice, Porcellio scaber) in standard soil, both with and without 0.05% w/w or 0.5% w/w of MPs [94]. It was observed that tire particles reduced the toxicity of chlorpyrifos to springtails (with an LC50 of 0.13–0.14 mg/kg of dry soil) and woodlice (with an LC50 of 1.6 mg/kg of dry soil) by factors ranging from 2 to more than 2.5. It also mitigated the reduction in acetylcholinesterase activity and altered the electron transfer system activity in woodlice due to chlorpyrifos by factors ranging from 2 to 4 [94]. Meanwhile, polyester fibers lowered the inhibitory effects of chlorpyrifos on acetylcholinesterase activity by a factor of 2 and boosted electron transfer system activity in woodlice by over three times. However, these fibers did not adversely affect the survival or reproduction of woodlice and springtails [94]. The findings suggest that MPs, particularly tire fragments, may reduce the bioavailability of chlorpyrifos.
Upon exposure to aged MPs and individual pesticides, the accumulation of chlorpyrifos in radish roots was greater than exposure to original MPs and individual pesticides, suggesting that MPs could increase the risks associated with pesticide accumulation in radishes after they have been in the soil for some time [44]. Notably, the presence of biodegradable MPs for one month not only heightened chlorpyrifos accumulation in radishes but also diminished the fresh root biomass of the plants. Furthermore, when LDPE MPs were present with the pesticide mixture, radish roots showed significantly higher levels of chlorpyrifos compared to individual pesticides, indicating that the methods of pesticide application may influence pesticide accumulation in plants [44]. Most studies on the toxicity of pesticide-MP interactions are laboratory-based. In the field, environmental complexity with the presence of interacting variables such as soil composition, organic matter content, microbial activity, and varying climatic conditions could affect how pesticides behave upon interacting with MPs. Moreover, MPs vary widely in their shapes, sizes, polymer types, and surface modifications, resulting in inconsistent interactions with pesticides. The variability is challenging to manage due to differing field conditions.

7. Agricultural Implications

The increasing presence of MPs in agricultural ecosystems has raised concerns about their impact on pesticide bioavailability, efficacy, and environmental behavior. These synthetic particles interact with pesticides through adsorption and desorption processes, altering their distribution, persistence, toxicity, and uptake by plants and other organisms.
MPs significantly influence the bioavailability of pesticides, a key factor in their effectiveness and environmental safety. MPs, particularly PE and PS, strongly adsorb hydrophobic pesticides such as strobilurins and triazoles, decreasing their bioavailable fractions in soil and water [40,42,60]. This reduced bioavailability can diminish pesticide uptake by crops, as observed with azoxystrobin and tebuconazole, which demonstrated lower absorption in the presence of MPs (Figure 3) [41,42]. The adsorption of pesticides onto MPs is driven by chemical properties such as hydrophobicity (log Kow values), as in the case of diethofencarb (2.91) versus pyrimethanil (2.48) [51]. Systemic pesticides, such as azoxystrobin, picoxystrobin, cyprodinil, and fluopyram, need to be absorbed by plants to confer protection against pests. Reduced uptake of these pesticides by plants could result in decreased protection against pests, causing crop damage, lower yields, and the need for higher rates of pesticide applications to achieve the same effectiveness (Figure 4).
Similar effects were observed with the antiviral pesticide Dufulin, where MPs reduced its bioaccumulation in tomato plants and inhibited its internal movement within tissues [71]. Furthermore, MPs, particularly the biodegradable ones, adsorb amide herbicides, potentially reducing the access of weeds to these herbicides, hence the effectiveness of the latter in controlling weeds. In the case of contact pesticides, such as diethofencarb, bifenthrin, etofenprox, and carbendazim, adsorption by MPs and reduced bioavailability also diminish the amounts of pesticides in the soil to act on the pests directly, thereby decreasing their effectiveness (Figure 4). A decline in pesticides’ effectiveness is linked to lower agricultural yields and higher costs of having to apply more pesticides [95]. The trending agricultural practice of using mulch films is likely to alter pesticide distribution, with PBAT mulch films retaining more pesticide residues than PE mulch films, thus decreasing their bioavailability further. This is confirmed by Cordoba et al., showing that the desorption of trifluralin and chlorpyrifos from PE mesoplastics was greater than biodegradable ones [61]. Despite higher retention of pesticides by PBAT, studies have shown that biodegradation or aging of biodegradable MPs may facilitate the breakdown of certain pesticides, such as thiamethoxam and chlorpyrifos, possibly through enhancing soil microbial activities and the release of these pesticides [68,86].
In a few cases, MPs increase pesticide bioavailability. Thiacloprid, a systemic pesticide, exhibited enhanced bioavailability in soils containing PA6 and PBAT MPs, potentially increasing its uptake by plants and soil organisms [8]. This may indicate differential adsorption of pesticides by MP types and pesticide properties. However, in most instances, MPs were observed to adsorb and reduce the bioavailability of pesticides [41,71]. Pesticide desorption may occur with rates often determined by MP types and pesticide hydrophobicity, contributing to a long-term source of pesticides, but it is uncertain if the amounts desorbed could reach effective levels against pests without periodic fresh pesticide applications.
With MPs adsorbing and gradually desorbing pesticides, they can reduce the dissipation of pesticides, leading to prolonged persistence in soils (Figure 4). This was evident with atrazine, where MPs significantly reduced its degradation compared to control conditions without MPs [45]. MPs can modify pesticide degradation processes depending on their type, concentration, and environmental conditions. For instance, the presence of PLA MPs inhibited chlorpyrifos degradation, extending its half-life and reducing its breakdown rate [74]. This prolongs the pesticide’s active period and raises concerns about soil contamination and off-target effects. PE MPs extended the degradation half-life of 3,5-dichloroaniline due to their adsorption capacity, making the pesticide less available for biological uptake. MPs adsorb pesticides, reducing their bioavailability for immediate uptake by plants or microbes but increasing their persistence in the soil [80]. In aquatic environments, MPs influence pesticide distribution between water and sediment. For example, herbicides exhibited prolonged persistence in the presence of MPs, significantly affecting their degradation and stereoselectivity [79]. However, original conventional MPs and aged biodegradable MPs were found to have lower potential in enhancing the persistence of pesticides than aged conventional and original biodegradable MPs due to greater adsorption of pesticides on the latter [10,65,67]. Theoretically, increased pesticide persistence and prolonged pesticide release from MPs could lead to sublethal exposure, which may contribute to resistance development. However, compared to the development of pesticide resistance caused by the overuse of pesticides, the impact of MPs might be significantly less. To date, no studies have examined the effect of MPs on pesticide resistance.
Limited information on the combined toxicity of MPs and pesticides on target organisms is available. Most studies are conducted on non-target organisms to examine combined ecotoxicity in general [96]. Combined exposure to MPs and herbicides, such as glyphosate, negatively impacts aquatic weeds like Salvinia cucullata. Increased leaf yellowing and diminished root activity indicate that synergistic effects between MPs and herbicides can potentially suppress weeds more [89]. However, these synergistic effects could also affect crops. Germination rates of crops such as lettuce significantly declined in the presence of MPs combined with neonicotinoid insecticides. This trend was more pronounced with aged MPs, likely due to their enhanced ability to adsorb pesticides [43]. Synergistic toxicity of MPs and chlorpyrifos was also reported for radishes [44]. Although MPs can lower the bioavailability of pesticides, they might slowly release these chemicals over time, posing risks of co-exposure for certain crops during future planting cycles (Figure 4). The effects of MPs on non-target soil organisms vary. MPs, particularly tire fragments, have been reported to reduce the toxicity of chlorpyrifos to soil arthropods like springtails and woodlice [94]. On the contrary, combined exposure of earthworms to MPs and imidacloprid reduced their weight gain and antioxidant enzyme activity, potentially impairing their ecological role in agriculture [92].
The aging of MPs influences their interaction with pesticides. Aged MPs, with increased surface area and functional groups, may exhibit higher adsorption capacities for some pesticides, increasing their persistence and toxicity. Global warming may raise the desorption of pesticides from MPs, making the pesticides more bioavailable over time. Similarly, higher soil moisture promotes the migration of pesticides from MPs.

8. Conclusions

MPs significantly modulate the behavior of pesticides in agricultural systems. While they can reduce the bioavailability of pesticides due to adsorption, they also increase the persistence of pesticides and alter their toxicity. The interplay between bioavailability, persistence, and toxicity makes determining the overall effects of MPs on agriculture challenging. Higher adsorption of pesticides by MPs increases their persistence. Subsequent desorption, influenced by MP types and pesticide hydrophobicity and partitioning, replenishes the pesticides in the soil. This permits the gradual release of pesticides and potential sustained actions on target organisms but increases their impacts on non-target organisms. Furthermore, it remains uncertain if the residual pesticides desorbed from MPs could reach a level effective in controlling pests without the need for fresh pesticide applications. Studies on how combined exposure to MPs and pesticides affect pesticide toxicity on target organisms are extremely limited, with most studies focusing on the ecotoxicity of the combined exposure. Nonetheless, most literature seems to suggest that MPs have a more significant effect on the bioavailability of pesticides. This means that the frequency or amount of pesticide application needs to be increased to achieve the desired level of crop protection with increasing MP pollution, giving rise to negative cost and environmental implications. To more precisely understand the effects of MPs on pesticide applications, it is suggested that future studies (1) quantify how the presence of aged and original MPs alters the amounts of systemic and contact pesticides applied to give the desired levels of crop protection, (2) quantify the protective durations of systemic and contact pesticides on crops with and without MPs (aged and original), (3) examine if the desorption of pesticides from MPs provides adequate long-term protection to crops, and (4) examine how combined exposure to MPs and pesticides affect target pests.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agriculture15040356/s1, Table S1. Chemical structures of pesticides and microplastics.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The review did not report any data.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Flowchart summarizing the literature review process.
Figure 1. Flowchart summarizing the literature review process.
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Figure 2. Global pesticide use per hectare (2013–2022) [39].
Figure 2. Global pesticide use per hectare (2013–2022) [39].
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Figure 3. Adsorption of pesticides to microplastics results in their lower bioavailability, higher persistence, and altered toxicity. The adsorbed pesticides may desorb, gradually releasing pesticides back into the environment.
Figure 3. Adsorption of pesticides to microplastics results in their lower bioavailability, higher persistence, and altered toxicity. The adsorbed pesticides may desorb, gradually releasing pesticides back into the environment.
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Figure 4. Adsorption of pesticides by MPs affects their bioavailability, persistence, and toxicity, which have implications for pesticide application rates and their long-term release, potentially affecting non-target organisms and certain crops.
Figure 4. Adsorption of pesticides by MPs affects their bioavailability, persistence, and toxicity, which have implications for pesticide application rates and their long-term release, potentially affecting non-target organisms and certain crops.
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Table 1. The modes of action of different pesticides studied.
Table 1. The modes of action of different pesticides studied.
PesticideMode of ActionSpecific Action
Fungicide
AzoxystrobinSystemicStrobilurin; inhibits mitochondrial respiration
PicoxystrobinSystemic
PyraclostrobinSystemic
MetalaxylSystemicTargets RNA polymerase; used against oomycetes
TebuconazoleSystemicTriazole; inhibits sterol biosynthesis
DiethofencarbContactCarbamate fungicide; inhibits fungal respiration
PyrimethanilSystemicAnilinopyrimidine; inhibits methionine biosynthesis
CyprodinilSystemic
DifenoconazoleSystemicTriazole; inhibits sterol biosynthesis
MyclobutanilSystemic
FlutriafolSystemic
HexaconazoleSystemic
EpoxiconazoleSystemic
TriadimenolSystemic
ProcymidoneContactDicarboximide; inhibits lipid peroxidation and fungal cell membrane function
FluxapyroxadSystemicInhibits mitochondrial respiration
FluopyramSystemic
Insecticide
AcetamipridSystemicNeonicotinoid; acts as a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist
ThiaclopridSystemic
FipronilSystemicPhenylpyrazole; GABA receptor antagonist, causing hyperexcitation
BifenthrinContactPyrethroid; disrupts sodium channel function in the nervous system
EtofenproxContactPyrethroid-like action; disrupts sodium channel function
FenazaquinContactMitochondrial electron transport inhibitor
LufenuronSystemicBenzoylurea; inhibits chitin synthesis
PyridabenContactMitochondrial complex I electron transport inhibitor
PyridalylContactDisrupts protein synthesis in insect cells
PyriproxyfenContactJuvenile hormone analog; disrupts insect development and reproduction
CarbenzapimContactNeurotoxin; specific mode of action not well documented
ChlorantraniliproleSystemicDiamide; activates ryanodine receptors, causing calcium release and muscle paralysis
ChlorpyrifosContactOrganophosphate; acetylcholinesterase inhibitor
Herbicide
AcetochlorSystemicChloroacetamide; inhibits cell division
NapropamideSystemicAmide herbicide; inhibits root and shoot growth
AtrazineSystemicTriazine; inhibits photosystem II
SimazineSystemic
TerbuthylazineSystemic
MetolachlorSystemicChloroacetamide; inhibits cell division
TrifluralinSystemicDinitroaniline; prevents cell division
ImazamoxSystemicALS inhibitor; blocks branched-chain amino acid synthesis
ImazapicSystemic
ImazethapyrSystemic
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Tang, K.H.D. Effects of Microplastics on Bioavailability, Persistence and Toxicity of Plant Pesticides: An Agricultural Perspective. Agriculture 2025, 15, 356. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15040356

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Tang KHD. Effects of Microplastics on Bioavailability, Persistence and Toxicity of Plant Pesticides: An Agricultural Perspective. Agriculture. 2025; 15(4):356. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15040356

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Tang, Kuok Ho Daniel. 2025. "Effects of Microplastics on Bioavailability, Persistence and Toxicity of Plant Pesticides: An Agricultural Perspective" Agriculture 15, no. 4: 356. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15040356

APA Style

Tang, K. H. D. (2025). Effects of Microplastics on Bioavailability, Persistence and Toxicity of Plant Pesticides: An Agricultural Perspective. Agriculture, 15(4), 356. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15040356

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