Road Noise Investigation in Concrete Pavements via OBSI Method Application—The Review

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This article presents the current scope of On-Board Sound Intensity (OBSI) test applications in road noise research. It focuses on concrete pavements and known texturing methods. The literature review identifies research gaps in the current state of the art regarding OBSI testing application and comprehensive road noise studies. The findings of this study provide a strong foundation for future comprehensive investigations. Future research will combine OBSI measurements with other pavement performance tests for concrete pavements.

Abstract

Concrete pavement noise generated at tire–surface contact is a negative phenomenon that might be limited differently, especially by applying surface texture. To estimate the texture’s loudness, various tests are used to measure the road noise level. One of the increasingly used tests is On-board Sound Intensity (OBSI). Performing such tests enables to explore the road noise phenomenon more efficiently; however, it also enables to distinguish and compare the texture impact on the road noise level. Moreover, it might also contribute to quiet concrete pavement further development. The article presents an OBSI method application review to investigate road noise in concrete pavements considering known texturing methods. The focus is to answer how broadly the OBSI method was applied in concrete pavements regarding texture and what the main findings are. Additionally, the following review notices if complex tests considering other pavement parameters related to road noise level and safety were performed simultaneously with the OBSI measurement. Road noise on concrete pavements has been widely investigated using the OBSI method. However, this review identifies significant research gaps. The effects of customized surface texture configurations and acoustic durability remain underexplored. Furthermore, comprehensive studies are lacking. Specifically, skid resistance (measured by TWO or SRT-3 devices) should be evaluated simultaneously with OBSI levels. These measurements must be conducted under identical conditions, including the same test speed and continuous surveying. Further research in this area will fill existing knowledge gaps and clarify pavement noise generation mechanisms. Ultimately, this will enable the development of design and maintenance guidelines for low-noise concrete pavements, optimizing texturing methods, safety, and economic factors.

1. Introduction

Road noise generated by vehicle traffic is one of the phenomena that negatively impacts human health and well-being [1,2,3,4]. This phenomenon is felt both in urbanized areas and beyond. The development of knowledge and technology is contributing to increasingly bold decisions by authorities aimed at reducing the impact of noise on human comfort and health. One of the most frequently used solutions for reducing noise emissions is the use of acoustic panels (noise barriers) [5,6], which are considered effective [7,8]. However, this is a cost-intensive solution that requires periodic maintenance—replacing degraded panels [9,10]. There are also other methods of reducing noise emissions [11,12], such as using natural barriers (trees, bushes), moving buildings away from the road, or implementing appropriate traffic management (reducing the permitted speed). These solutions’ applications are often time-consuming (before the desired effect is achieved) or cannot be implemented due to various site constraints.

Other known methods for reducing road noise include those related to the pavement surfaces’ construction and finishing (texturing) [12,13,14]. Depending on the surface texture solution applied, concrete pavement surfaces might become quieter, enabling a natural reduction in noise emissions. Therefore, searching for optimal solutions for acoustically improved concrete structures increases human comfort by reducing noise, but can also contribute to reducing the use of cost-intensive solutions, such as acoustic barriers (solution compensation).

Although surface texture application helps limit noise level, it should be noted that the road noise phenomenon investigation is a complex problem [12,13,14,15,16,17,18]. Road noise and its intensity (level expressed in decibels (dB)) depend on many variables, such as vehicle silhouette, speed, tire type, weather conditions, surroundings, road structure (layers, type of material, taking into account the granulation of components), co-occurring aging processes of the materials used, surface texture, longitudinal evenness, and others.

It is worth emphasizing that audible road noise results from many individual noise components [13,14]; however, the most significant component related to surface texture is the tire–pavement contact noise. Texture type and configuration directly affect the audible noise level at the tire-pavement contact.

To explore the road noise phenomenon more efficiently as well as to investigate, compare, and assess concrete pavement texture solutions due to road noise level (tire-pavement contact), various road noise test methods could be applied. One of the increasingly used is On-board Sound Intensity (OBSI).

The OBSI method is efficient, economical, and repeatable compared to others [19,20,21,22]. It does not require expensive and complex measurement systems. It allows measuring road noise (tire–surface contact) directly. Furthermore, the OBSI test can be fully synchronized with other pavement tests to verify the interdependencies and the impact of other pavement parameters on road noise as well as safety (e.g., anti-slippery pavement property could be measured by the Traction Watcher One (TWO) or Slip Resistance Tester v3 (SRT-3) devices at once with the OBSI test—keeping the same test speed). All of these benefits make the OBSI method the most universal and powerful to investigate the road noise phenomenon related to concrete pavement texture more deeply. Its wide application allows performing more complex analysis, which may also contribute to quiet concrete pavement development.

The primary objective of this review is to evaluate the extent of OBSI method applications in investigating concrete pavement noise related to surface texture. It also summarizes the main findings of these studies.

A secondary objective is to determine whether comprehensive tests of other pavement parameters (affecting noise and safety) were conducted simultaneously with OBSI measurements. Furthermore, the review investigates if pavement structural properties (layers, material parameters) were analyzed alongside OBSI noise assessments.

The review outcomes highlight existing knowledge gaps regarding OBSI testing on textured concrete pavements. Consequently, directions for future research are established. Figure 1 illustrates the scope, focus, and conceptual framework of this review.

The more detailed article review’s scope is presented below.

• The review scope is limited to the fundamental road noise component generated by vehicle traffic—the tire–surface contact. Using the sentence “road noise” in the article is equal to the noise generated by tire–surface contact.
• The review scope is limited to road noise (the tire–surface contact) investigation performed only with OBSI test method.
• The review scope is limited to road noise (the tire–surface contact) investigation only in concrete pavements considering surface texture types (application methods, configuration)—Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) surfaces and Next Generation Concrete Surface (NGCS).
• The review is carried chronologically regarding the review scope limitation presented above. The time range is defined as the oldest OBSI test application literature source found to the present (end of 2025).
• The main goal is to answer how broadly the OBSI method was applied to investigate noise phenomenon in concrete pavements considering texture, and what the main findings are.
• The first optional goal is to check if complex tests considering other pavement parameters * (that may be related to road noise level as well as safety) were performed simultaneously (at once in one complex study) with the OBSI test application.

• * Remark: focus is set on which tests were applied—what pavement parameters verified, what devices type used to test and what was generally observed, if so.

Pavement test examples regarding field of interest are:

• load-bearing capacity (endurance)—tested exemplary by FWD (Falling Weight Deflectometer);
• anti-slippery properties (friction coefficient)—tested by DFT (Dynamic Friction Tester), TWO or SRT-3;
• longitudinal evenness (IRI—International Roughness Index) + transverse evenness (rutting) + macrotexture (MPD—Mean Profile Depth)—tested by laser scanning via RSP-3 (Road Surface Profiler v3—with 21 laser sensors).

• The second optional goal is to check if pavement construction (layers, material parameters) was considered simultaneously with the road noise investigation performed by OBSI test.
• General review should clearly present knowledge gaps that might be filled and determine the future research plan directions—especially regarding to the OBSI test method application.

2. Literature Review

This chapter presents a chronological review related to road noise investigation considering concrete pavement texture via the OBSI method application.

Based on [23,24,25,26,27,28], the following concrete pavement texturing methods can be distinguished:

• burlap dragging or texture dragging,
• tining,
• shot blasting,
• brooming,
• diamond grooving or grooving,
• diamond grinding,
• exposed aggregate,
• hybrid methods—“grinding and grooving” (conventional as a mixed technique and for NGCS paves),
• porous concrete (large void content—material feature instead of pavement surface texturing method).

The review considered the direction of texturing—transverse, longitudinal, and diagonal to the direction of travel. Attention was also paid to texturing configurations (e.g., spacing, depth, and width of the texturing elements) and the age of the tested structure (service life).

It is worth emphasizing that the first publications regarding concrete surface noise measurements using the OBSI method, which consider texturing methods and the directions of texture construction, date back to 2006 [26,29,30]. Proper standardization of this method occurred in 2009, along with the determination of noise levels characterizing quiet surfaces [31,32]. Therefore, the review time range is 2006–2026 (relating to the OBSI method application).

Although the OBSI method is used broadly, only 31 literature sources were found regarding the review specified scope.

A literature search was conducted across the following databases: DOAJ, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Index Copernicus. The search process consisted of two stages.

Stage one—all articles referred to the OBSI test application considering the main topic—road noise investigation, including main findings were downloaded to create local article database. In this stage, elements connected with the current article’s secondary aim were analyzed in parallel.

The overmentioned databases were searched using the following keywords, applied individually and in combinations:

• On-board Sound Intensity,
• OBSI,
• concrete pavement noise,
• concrete pavement texturing methods,
• quiet concrete pavements,
• road noise,
• pavement noise,
• IRI,
• MPD,
• RSP,
• macrotexture,
• texture,
• acoustic degradation.

Stage two—the compiled local database was filtered. Articles were selected to strictly match the specific scope of this review.

All knowledge elements (literature) were managed in the Citavi program.

To expose literature sources via time axis more directly and understandable, the literature review source visualization is presented in Figure 2.

Chronological Review

In 2006, Cackler et al. [33] published the first significant study (a report for the National Concrete Pavement Technology Center) where a noise investigation was performed by evaluating conventional and innovative concrete pavement noise-reduction methods (texture’s impact on road noise, evaluated using the OBSI test). Furthermore, the article tried to assess how to control tire–pavement noise and what further research is needed.

In the article, the OBSI test method was used to investigate road noise level on 213 selected and exploited PCC pavement sections in the USA. However, the OBSI method was officially standardized in 2009, and measurements were performed using the FHWA traffic noise model.

The following surface textures were examined: artificial turf dragging (longitudinal), burlap drag (longitudinal), transverse tining, longitudinal tining, diamond grinding, exposed aggregate, and previous concrete pavement (porous concrete). Detailed pavement texturing parameters regarded to tested pavement field are described in the article—too many to list.

The main conclusions from the noise study are as follows:

• The evaluated texturing methods (artificial turf drag, burlap drag, longitudinal tining, and diamond grinding) initially reduce noise by up to 6 dB. Furthermore, they provide acceptable initial friction levels.
• Exposed aggregate and pervious concrete pavements exhibited the lowest noise levels. These technologies require further development.

Exemplary study results from OBSI test application can be observed in Figure 3.

In addition to OBSI road noise tests, this study simultaneously evaluated macrotexture height as a performance parameter related to safety and noise. Measurements were conducted using the RoboTex device. This six-wheeled, remote-controlled robot uses laser technology with a 100 mm measurement width. RoboTex captured 3D images of the texture height. Preliminary tests were performed on selected pavement sections.

The results indicate that surface texture correlates with road noise. However, further research is required to fully understand this relationship. Future studies must also determine the effects of time on noise and texture variability over the pavement service life.

The analyzed literature neither discloses technical data on pavement construction (such as layers and material parameters) nor considers these factors in road noise and safety investigations. A single comprehensive study combining these elements is still lacking.

In 2007, Ferragut et al. [34] published a report that continued Cackler’s work from 2006 [33]. The primary objective of the report was to collect data for future comprehensive studies on road noise and safety. These studies include examining construction factors that influence noise and surface characteristics. The authors aimed to develop optimal design guidelines for low-noise concrete pavements based on experimental results. Although the report is a preliminary study, it analyzes the collected acoustic data.

The OBSI method was used to measure noise levels on 395 in-service PCC pavement sections in the USA. This represents an increase from the 213 sections evaluated in the previous study.

The evaluated surface textures included longitudinal artificial turf drag, longitudinal burlap drag, transverse tining, longitudinal tining, diamond grinding, exposed aggregate, and pervious concrete. Additional textures from the previous study included longitudinal diamond grooving, transverse diamond grooving, and shot blasting. The original article specifies detailed texturing parameters for each test section. However, they are omitted here for brevity—too many to list.

The most essential conclusions related to noise study were:

• Texture surface impacts strongly the OBSI test result variability—several transverse tining sections were found to be quieter than some longitudinally tining ones.
• Overall noise investigation showed that three noise level (dB) range zones could be characterized from current study related to texture: 1—innovation zone with dB level below 99 dB; 2—mid quality zone with dB level between 99–104 dB; 3—avoid zone with dB level over 104 dB.
• The loudest surface texture was transverse tining—in most cases noise level referred to three zones; however, the quietest texturing methods were diamond grinding and burlap dragging (zone 2—99–102 dB).
• No concrete surface texture found in zone 1—statement that texturing methods must still be developing regarding texture parameters as well as quality application to achieve the desired noise level in zone 1.
• Analyses showed that a car passing through expansion joints between slabs increases average noise by 1.5 dB, while locally, bridge expansion joints increase sound intensity by up to 5 dB. An exemplary observation is presented in Figure 4.

Moreover, in the current study, the other pavement parameters were also recorded for future comprehensive investigation (complex tests related to safety and noise). Above-mentioned variables were:

• macrotexture height—measured by RoboTex and CTM—Circular Texture Meter devices (to results comparison),
• coefficient of friction—measured by DFT—Dynamic Friction Tester device,
• longitudinal evenness—IRI—International Roughness Index—measured by inertial profiler device—two lasers,
• pavement and air temperature including air humidity.

Preliminary conclusions based on the recorded results include:

• Texture and noise variability, which are significantly higher for longitudinal and transverse tining compared to drag textures. This difference indicates a relationship among concrete mix, surface texture, and noise levels. Further investigation of this relationship is necessary.
• Efficient tire–pavement noise control, which requires real-time feedback during surface texturing. Texture application methods and their evaluation must be improved. Customized textures require validation for both acoustic effectiveness and safety. Utilizing a line laser test device would be highly beneficial for this purpose.

The reviewed study conducted numerous tests evaluating surface texture, noise, and safety; however, the analyzed article source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

In 2008, Hall et al. [35] published a report for the Transportation Research Board that presented a comprehensive study report regarding road noise investigation in concrete road pavements (PCC) as well as traffic safety parameters like texture and friction. The report’s main aim was to compare known measuring methods via concrete surface texture testing; however, noise observations related to OBSI method application were also provided and commented.

The studies were conducted on national roads in several US locations, including Washington, Iowa, and Illinois. The following PCC surface textures were examined:

• longitudinal diamond grooving—spacing: 5.59 mm, 6.22 mm; depth: 2.41 mm, 3.07 mm;
• longitudinal turf and burlap dragging—spacing: 1.91 mm, depth: 1.91 mm, 3.18 mm;
• longitudinal tining—spacing: 19.1 mm, depth: 4.76 mm.

Based on the OBSI noise measurements, the following observations were made:

• Increasing the groove depth in diamond grooving reduces noise levels by an average of 4 dB.
• Diamond grooving exhibited the highest noise variability (standard deviation of ±1.2 dB). Conversely, turf drag demonstrated the lowest variability (approximately ±0.2 dB).

Additionally, the report evaluated standard measurement methods to compare devices for texture and friction testing. However, it did not focus on correlating these variables with noise and safety. The utilized tests and devices included:

• macrotexture—CTM and Sand Patch Method (SPM) devices (to results comparison),
• friction—DFT and E 274 trailer method (to results comparison).

Although the report contains no investigation of noise and safety related to concrete pavement texture, it provides a detailed discussion of individual techniques and devices, their accuracy, applicability in in situ conditions, and an assessment of their cost and operating time.

The analyzed literature source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

Subsequently (2008), Rasmussen [36] conducted brief noise studies of concrete pavements in Iowa (USA) as part of the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) work. The main aim was to check a possible correlation between texture height and noise level (OBSI test method) considering time of day (morning vs. evening) to propose a mechanistic model that describes tire–pavement noise. The OBSI test vehicle speed was equal to 97 km/h.

Road noise level was examined on PCC pavements textured using the burlap dragging and tining (transverse) method. No texture details except applying method were exposed.

In the current study it was observed that:

• the noise level for the assessed pavement was almost identical in the morning and evening.
• The highest noise levels were recorded at sound frequencies of 800, 1000, and 1250 [Hz]—the exemplary result is presented in Figure 5.

This study provides additional data on the correlation between macrotexture height and noise levels. Macrotexture was measured using the RoboTech laser device.

The results indicate a strong correlation between surface texture and noise. This relationship is particularly evident in the frequency spectra that dominate overall OBSI noise levels.

The analyzed article source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

A year later (2009), Donavan [37] published a study referring to noise level investigation via OBSI test method application considering various concrete pavement (PCC) textures. Noise levels were measured at a speed of 97 km/h. The passenger car used a Good Year P205/70R15 tire type.

Road noise levels were examined on selected expressways and highways in the USA (California). The following textures were investigated:

• tining (longitudinal, spacing/texture depth 2.4–3.2 mm/1.5–8 mm),
• burlap dragging (longitudinal),
• brooming (longitudinal),
• diamond grooving [disc spacing: 9.35–19.05 mm, depth: 3.18–6.35 mm],
• diamond grinding [disc spacing 2.67–3.05 mm],
• hybrid method (conventional “grinding + grooving”) [disc spacing 3.05 mm—grinding/19.05 mm—grooving + depth 9.35 mm].

Initially, the selected pavement sections were textured using tining, burlap drag, and brooming. After preliminary testing, additional texturing treatments were applied using the aforementioned parameters. OBSI noise measurements revealed the following:

• the highest noise levels were recorded at frequencies of 900–1250 Hz, with an extreme peak at 900 Hz—highest noise spectrum peak is texture surface independent (exemplary results—Figure 6);
• the texture burlap dragging is quieter than brooming as well as tining, up to 2 dB less noise level;
• the lowest noise level (101 dB) was recorded for the surface originally textured with a burlap dragging, which was subsequently grinded (sect #5). This texturing combination reduced the noise level by up to 2.5 dB compared to other surfaces—exemplary results Figure 7;
• it has been confirmed that doweled and anchored pavements are up to 4 dB louder than those without them.

In the current article, no other tests were performed, considering noise investigation and safety (complex investigation).

The analyzed article source does not expose detailed information about pavement construction technical data (as well as considering them in the noise and safety field); however, in the article, it can be seen that pavements tested were doweled and undoweled, with transverse and longitudinal joints. The pavement slabs’ dimensions ranged from 3.35 to 4.27 m.

In the same year (2009), Donavan and Lodico [38] published an article where the OBSI test method was used to investigate the impact of vehicle silhouette (passenger vehicle, light truck, truck), tire (Dunlop, SRTT with a tire width of 25 ft or 50 ft), and traffic speed (range 55–70 mph) on the noise level PCC concrete surfaces.

Road noise level was examined on 12 PCC sections. The texture surface details were presented in [37] (thread follow-up).

The main conclusions from the OBSI noise study are as follows:

• Noise levels increase with vehicle speed.
• Narrower tires (25 ft) generate up to 15 dB higher noise levels than 50-ft-wide tires.
• Tire tread design, specifically height and shape, strongly influences noise levels, causing variations of up to 7 dB.

In the current article, no other tests were performed, considering noise investigation and safety (complex investigation).

The analyzed article source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

In 2010, Kohler [39] published a report presenting the research results related to the impact of speed increase on noise generated by the OBSI method in PCC pavements considering texture.

No detailed data was provided beyond the applied texturing methods. The evaluated textures included burlap drag, diamond grooving, longitudinal tining, and longitudinal brooming.

The main conclusions from the noise study are as follows:

• Tire–pavement noise increases linearly with speed, regardless of surface texture. This strong linear relationship is supported by a high coefficient of determination (R²), as shown in Figure 8;
• Pavement temperature strongly influences OBSI noise measurements, causing significant data variability.

In the current article, no other tests were performed, considering noise investigation and safety (complex investigation).

The analyzed article source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

Then, in (2010), Cable [40] published a report for the National Concrete Pavement Technology Center. The report presented an implementation plan for New Generation Concrete Surfaces (NGCS) along with its noise evaluation via the OBSI method. This texturing technology is introduced as a multi-stage process for precise surface finishing. NGCS combines conventional grinding and grooving methods.

To evaluate this new texturing method regarding road noise, three 2-km test sections were examined using the OBSI method.

• The first section was made using NGCS technology (longitudinal grinding: spacing 0.8 mm; width: 0.3 mm, and longitudinal grooving: spacing 12.7 mm; width: 3.2 mm; depth: 3.2 mm).
• The second one is a combination of conventional grinding and grooving.
• Third—conventional grooving.

All conventional texture surface sections would be identical to those for NGCS. This report was preliminary flash to further noise analyses (OBSI method) carried out in IOWA (USA).

In the current article, no other tests were performed, considering noise investigation and safety (complex investigation).

The analyzed article source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

Subsequently (2011), Anderson et al. [41] published a report for the Washington State Department of Transportation. This preliminary study used the OBSI method to evaluate road noise generated by New Generation Concrete Surfaces (NGCSs). The noise levels were compared to those of conventional PCC pavements.

Three 200-m test sections in Sunnyside, Washington (USA) were investigated. These included one NGCS section and two conventional PCC sections. The PCC sections were textured using conventional diamond grinding (DGrind) and transverse tining. Geometric texture details, aside from the application methods, were not exposed.

The study showed that NGCS surfaces are 3 to 6 dB quieter than conventional PCC textures—Figure 9.

Additionally, friction was evaluated as a safety-related parameter. Friction was measured only for the NGCS and CDG surfaces. However, the specific testing devices and protocols were not disclosed, and correlation analyses were not performed.

Ultimately, the results indicated that NGCS surfaces provide approximately 10% higher skid resistance (friction) than DGrind-textured PCC surfaces.

The analyzed article source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

In (2011), Kohler et al. [42] published a report prepared for the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans), where the OBSI test method was used to investigate the impact of exploitation time and audible sound frequencies on road noise in PCC concrete surfaces (study concerned a 2 year period, the same sections tested each year).

Road noise levels were evaluated on 120 PCC pavement sections across 47 sites in California (USA). The analyzed surface textures included longitudinal brooming (LB), diamond grinding (DGrind), diamond grooving (DGrov), burlap drag (BD), and longitudinal tining (LT). Detailed geometric texture parameters were not provided. Instead, the textures were classified by condition: new (up to one year after construction), aged (deterioration observed, but texture remains visible in wheel paths), and worn out (texture removed in wheel paths).

OBSI noise measurements revealed the following:

• For all evaluated textures, the highest noise levels occurred in the 800–1000 Hz frequency band, regardless of the texturing method.
• At the 800 Hz peak, LT surfaces were the loudest (approximately 99.6 dB), while LB surfaces were the quietest (approximately 97.2 dB). Exemplary average noise results—Figure 10.
• Texture degradation over time increases noise levels. For the DGrind method, noise levels increased by an average of 8 dB.
• The BD technique exhibited the lowest acoustic variability over time, with an average noise increase of only 1.9 dB. Figure 11 presents selected OBSI results over a 2-year period.
• Based on LT data, new textures can be up to 2 dB quieter than aged or worn-out textures at the 800 Hz peak frequency.

Furthermore, the study simultaneously measured pavement parameters related to safety and noise. Mean Profile Depth (MPD) and longitudinal roughness (IRI) were recorded using a Road Surface Profiler (RSP). Although the data collection methodology was reported, the actual measurement results were neither published nor analyzed.

The analyzed article source also nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study)—except pavement-built date.

In (2012), Scofield [43] published a report for the American Concrete Pavement Association. This study used the OBSI method to investigate road noise on New Generation Concrete Surfaces (NGCS). The primary objective was to evaluate the noise-reduction potential of this new texturing technology and its viability for further development.

Road noise levels were evaluated on 17 NGCS sections and 12 conventional PCC pavement sections across various US states. The primary surface textures examined were: NGCS (grinding combined with grooving), conventional diamond grinding (CDG/DGrind), and exposed aggregate (EA). Secondary textures, based on historical data, included turf drag, diamond grooving, and tining.

The report details extensive texturing parameters for the NGCS method (e.g., blade configurations, spacer widths, and grinding depths). However, these parameters were not explicitly linked to specific test sections. Geometric details for the DGrind and EA textures were not provided.

The main conclusions from the noise study are as follows:

• EA surfaces rehabilitated with CDG were the quietest (99.6 dB), closely followed by EA surfaces rehabilitated with NGCS (99.8 dB). The acoustic difference was marginal (0.2 dB).
• After 1 to 4 years in service, NGCS surfaces exhibited an average acoustic degradation (noise increase) of 1.0 dB.
• Depending on the region, NGCS surfaces were, on average, up to 2.1 dB quieter than DGind and EA surfaces.

Additionally, friction was evaluated simultaneously as a safety parameter in a preliminary study on selected sections. Friction was measured using an ASTM E274 locked-wheel skid trailer.

A 5-year observation period (2007–2011) indicated that friction generally increases over time on NGCS surfaces but decreases on DGrind surfaces.

Specialized braking distance tests were also performed using a sport utility vehicle (SUV) under both wet and dry conditions. The shortest stopping distances were recorded on CDG-textured PCC surfaces in both conditions (Figure 12). The report concludes that NGCS technology requires further development. Specifically, blade spacing and groove dimensions must be optimized to enhance both acoustic performance and skid resistance.

The analyzed article source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

In 2012, Rasmussen et al. [23] published a brief report for the National Concrete Pavement Technology Center, presenting implementation recommendations for PCC pavements to make them more quiet (presented collectively based on past subject investigation related only to pavement surface).

The authors observed a significant problem with achieving repeatability in the texture application to pavements, which negatively affects the generated noise level (OBSI) and anti-slip properties (friction—ASTM E274 locked-wheel skid trailer device). The correlated results were spread widely—a result cloud was seen.

The following surface textures were examined: diamond grinding, burlap dragging, longitudinal tining, and transverse tining. Nor texture details nor the exploitation time were provided.

According to noise investigation via the OBSI test application, it was observed that:

• The transverse tining method is the noisiest, with noise levels reaching up to 111.5 dB.
• The quietest texturing method is burlap dragging—noise levels reach around 100.5 dB.
• Compromise among all analyzed surfaces seems to be the diamond grinding texturing method—a noise level is quite similar to that of the burlap dragging (Figure 13).

Then, in (2012), Guada et al. [44] published an extensive report for the California Department of Transportation. This study used the OBSI method to assess the acoustic impact of New Generation Concrete Surfaces (NGCS) before and after construction. The primary objective was to directly compare the noise levels of NGCS and conventional diamond grinding (CDG/DGrind) surface textures.

Road noise levels were evaluated on seven PCC pavement sections in California (USA). The test sections featured DGrind, NGCS, and combined DGrind+NGCS surfaces. No geometric texture details were provided, except for NGCS grooving dimensions (depths: 3.2 mm and 4.8 mm; spacings: 12.7 mm and 15.9 mm). The report noted that conventional texturing methods lack national application standards.

OBSI noise measurements revealed the following:

• NGCS textures provided two to three times greater noise reduction than CDG textures. The average overall noise reduction was 3.6 dB for NGCS compared to 1.6 dB for CDG.
• The combined CDG+NGCS texture was more effective in reducing noise than standalone NGCS, being on average 0.9 dB quieter.
• NGCS was approximately 20% more cost-effective than CDG. The cost of noise reduction was USD 2.77/dB for NGCS versus USD 3.36/dB for CDG.

Additionally, the study simultaneously evaluated comprehensive pavement parameters related to safety and noise. These variables included:

• friction (anti-slip properties) measured by a locked-wheel skid trailer device [ASTM E274], and DFT [ASTM E1911] separately;
• longitudinal evenness (IRI)—measured by an inertial lase profiler with a RolineTM high speed point laser [ASTM E950];
• macrotexture—CTM [ASTM E2157];
• surface drainability—measured by the Outflow Meter (OFM) [ASTM E2380].

Not all parameters were thoroughly analyzed in relation to road noise. The primary conclusions focused on IRI, while the remaining data were intended for future preliminary analysis. Results indicated that NGCS is 20–35% more effective at improving ride quality than CDG. On average, the NGCS application improved the IRI by 93 in./mi, compared to 78 in./mi for CDG.

Referring to pavement construction detail, the report nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

Then, Wang et al. (2012) [45] conducted preliminary tests with the OBSI method usage to investigate road noise phenomenon—to check how loud are various pavements in North Carolina, USA (bitumen like: open grade friction course (OGFC) paves as well as a concrete one—textured by the conventional diamond grinding (CDG) method).

Road noise level was examined on 214 pavements sections in total; however, only a few sections were related to concrete paves.

Detailed texture parameters which were exposed look as follows: ridge height ranged between 1 and 2 mm, spacing ranged between 1.6 and 3.2 mm.

In the current study it was observed that:

• Tested CDG texture resulted in noise in the range of 100.8–104.9 dB (average 102.8 dB).
• PCC pavements textured by CDG method could be even 0.5 dB quieter than OGFC bitumen pavements (Figure 14).

The author noted that PCC pavements have the potential to be low-noise surfaces. However, further investigation is required to evaluate various PCC textures and specific texture parameters.

Although comprehensive tests were not conducted in the article, it was concluded that broader research is necessary. Future studies must evaluate additional concrete pavement parameters, such as skid resistance and macrotexture.

The analyzed article source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

Then, in (2013), Anderson et al. [46] published a report for the Washington State Department of Transportation. The study used the OBSI method to investigate the impact of concrete surface texture on road noise variability over time. The effects of traffic volume and studded tires were also evaluated.

Road noise levels were measured on five interstate highways in the USA (I-90 Spokane/Easton, I-5 Federal Way/Northgate, and I-82 Sunnyside). The assessed surface textures included carpet drag, transverse tining, longitudinal tining, New Generation Concrete Surface (NGCS), and Conventional Diamond Grinding (CDG). No geometric texture details were provided aside from the texturing methods. The observation period for noise variability ranged from 15 to 78 months, depending on the test section.

The main conclusions from the noise study are as follows:

• NGCS surfaces degrade rapidly in terms of acoustics. Within the first four months, noise levels increased by approximately 2.6 dB, reaching a total increase of 3.8 dB after 29 months (Figure 15). Heavy traffic and studded tires exacerbate this degradation.
• PCC surfaces with carpet drag or transverse tining exhibited minimal acoustic changes over time. This indicates high durability under heavy traffic, with a maximum noise increase of 1.3 dB over 78 months. Similar results were observed for CDG textures.
• On longitudinally tined sections, heavy traffic actually decreased road noise. Noise levels dropped by up to 1.8 dB. This texture could serve as a viable alternative to NGCS in areas with heavy traffic and studded tire usage.

However, the study did not conduct a comprehensive investigation combining road noise and safety parameters.

The analyzed article source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

In 2014, Anderson et al. [47] published a final report for the Washington State Department of Transportation, following up on previous studies [41,46]. The study used the OBSI method to investigate the impact of surface texture on road noise variability over time (2010–2013). The primary objective was to compare the acoustic performance of New Generation Concrete Surfaces (NGCS) and Conventional Diamond Grinding (CDG) on PCC pavements.

Road noise levels were measured on four 300-m sections of Interstate 82 in Sunnyside, Washington (USA). Two sections featured NGCS (Grind and Groove) textures, while the other featured CDG.

The reported texture parameters were as follows:

• NGCS: grind: diamond grind blades—0.125-inch width, spacers—0.030-inch width; groove: diamond groove blades—0.125-inch width, cut—0.125–0.375-inch depth, spacers—0.5-inch width
• CDG: diamond grind blades—0.125-inch width, spacers—0.030-inch width

OBSI noise measurements revealed the following:

• Over three years, NGCS surfaces exhibited greater acoustic degradation than CDG surfaces. Average noise levels increased by 3.8 dB for NGCS and 0.8 dB for CDG.
• Initially, NGCS surfaces were quieter than CDG surfaces. Initial noise levels were 99–102 dB for NGCS and 103–104 dB for CDG—Figure 16.
• Studded tires severely damage NGCS surfaces, resulting in a significant noise increase over time—Figure 16.

Furthermore, the study simultaneously measured pavement parameters related to safety and noise. Although preliminary data on friction, rutting, and longitudinal roughness (IRI) were presented, they were not thoroughly analyzed. The specific testing equipment used for these measurements was not disclosed.

Based on the collected data, NGCS surfaces generally provide better skid resistance than CDG surfaces. Additionally, neither surface experienced winter maintenance issues.

The analyzed article source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

Then, in (2016), Weissmann et al. [48] published a report for the Texas Department of Transportation. The study used the OBSI method to evaluate the long-term traffic noise performance of Next Generation Diamond Grinding (NGDG) textures.

Road noise levels were measured on a 0.68-mile section of Loop 610 in Harris County, Texas (USA). Prior to rehabilitation, the section featured a transverse tining (TT) texture. The rehabilitation replaced this surface with an NGDG texture. No geometric texture details were provided aside from the application method.

Noise levels were analyzed at three time points: before rehabilitation, and at 3 and 6 months after NGDG implementation.

The main conclusions from the noise study are as follows:

• Replacing the TT texture with NGDG reduced noise intensity by an average of 75%. Overall noise levels decreased from 107.6 dB to 101.7 dB.
• Results suggest that the NGDG surface requires approximately four times the traffic volume (V/h) to generate the same noise level as the original TT surface. However, this assumption requires further verification.
• The NGDG texture did not exhibit significant acoustic degradation (noise increase) over the tested period.

Additionally, the study recorded other pavement parameters for a comprehensive evaluation of safety and noise. These variables included:

• macrotexture height (MPD) as well as longitudinal evenness (IRI)—measured by laser texture scanner device (ASTM E2157/E1845);
• skid resistance—measured by a locked-wheel skid trailer device (ASTM E274).

Overall, the NGDG implementation improved both ride quality and skid resistance compared to the previous TT texture. Following rehabilitation, skid resistance increased by an average of 35%, although the macrotexture did not improve significantly.

The analyzed article source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters—except general information about the section that was made with continuously reinforced concrete) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

In (2018), Wei et al. [49] published an article as a preliminary complex study exploring road noise correlation with other pavement texture features related to safety (IRI, macrotexture, friction—sideway force).

Primarily, the OBSI test method was used to examine road noise in five highway tunnels located in Gansu (China) province. Then, other pavement-surface performance tests were performed. Afterwards, all coexistent correlations were analyzed.

In the article, four texture types related to PCC pavements were investigated—transverse grooving and longitudinal grooving. Detailed texture parameters were exposed in Figure 17.

Based on the OBSI noise measurements, the following conclusions were drawn:

• Pavement noise increases with groove depth. This is caused by the air-pumping effect resulting from a larger groove volume.
• Prolonged tire–pavement contact over deeper grooves can increase noise due to resonance effects.

In addition to OBSI road noise, the study evaluated safety-related pavement parameters for a comprehensive analysis. The following variables were measured:

• longitudinal evenness (IRI)—continuous roughness tester (LXBP-3),
• macrotexture—Chinese sanding method,
• friction—sideway force (60 km/h)—friction coefficient test equipment (JGMC-2).

A correlation analysis between road noise and safety parameters for grooved PCC textures revealed the following:

• A strong correlation exists between IRI and OBSI noise levels. The coefficient of determination (R²) was 0.74 for the combined data set of transverse and longitudinal grooves.
• Macrotexture also strongly correlates with OBSI noise levels. Depending on the groove type, (R²) values ranged from 0.60 to 0.64.

The authors emphasized the scarcity of literature on this topic and the need for further research. Future comprehensive studies combining road noise and pavement safety parameters are necessary to fully elucidate noise generation mechanisms related to surface texture.

The analyzed article source presented preliminary complex investigation due to noise and safety performance correlation; however, it nor exposes information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

Then, Staiano (2018) [50] published a review paper on low-noise pavements, focusing on American experiences with surface texture and road noise measured via the OBSI method. Although the review examined both asphalt and concrete pavements, it primarily focused on concrete surfaces.

The review concentrated on answering the question if surface texture impact road noise, and what the main findings are (due to OBSI test appliance). The author emphasized some general findings, which are extremely important to the current review article field of interest. The following notes were exposed:

• Surface texture significantly influences road noise. This relationship requires further investigation, particularly at the standard testing speed of 100 km/h and for frequencies below 1600 Hz.
• Standard OBSI testing at 100 km/h may underestimate noise levels on urban roads and highways. Therefore, evaluations across a broader speed range (20–140 km/h) are necessary.
• Comprehensive studies evaluating OBSI road noise and texture levels at various speeds are strongly needed. Such data will improve the understanding of noise generation and help develop noise prediction models that incorporate pavement safety factors.
• The literature currently lacks long-term comprehensive studies. Continuous, year-by-year monitoring of acoustic performance and safety parameters is required. This monitoring will enable the development of precise regression models for noise variability over time.

In the article, no details about concrete pavement texture were exposed as well as no information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.).

Subsequently, Zhang et al. (2020) [51] published an article follow-up related to [49] where the noise level investigation via the OBSI method in China tunnels (PCC pavement surface texture) was performed and extended by extra grooving texture parameter combinations (groove spacing was only variable, width, and depth were constant).

The noise test parameters were:

• test speed 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 km/h;
• the OBSI test was made using a passenger car with a 225/60 16 tire;
• each section test length was equal to 200 m.

The conventional grooving texture was analyzed regarding road noise in three cases: longitudinal grooving, transverse grooving, and mixed direction for grooving texture. Detailed texture parameters (due to copyrights) could be found in [51].

Based on the OBSI measurements, the main conclusions regarding road noise were as follows:

• The sound level progresses in four phases:
  • Noise increases before reaching the tunnel.
  • Noise stabilizes before entering the tunnel.
  • Noise increases in the initial tunnel section (up to 200 m).
  • Noise stabilizes inside the tunnel.
• The noise level increases by approximately 20 dB between phases 1 and 2, and by 23 dB between phases 3 and 4.
• Longitudinal grooving with a 25-mm spacing reduces noise by up to 2.5 dB compared to transverse grooving. For combined textures (longitudinal and transverse grooving), noise levels match those of transverse grooving.
• A linear model successfully characterized the relationship between test speed (60–100 km/h) and road noise for each grooving configuration. The coefficient of determination (R²) was nearly 1.0 (0.96–0.97). This indicates that noise phenomena inside tunnels do not dampen or resonate differently than in open environments.

In addition to noise, the study evaluated skid resistance for each texture combination. A JGMC-2 friction testing device measured the friction force at 60 km/h. This allowed for a preliminary assessment of which groove spacing provides the optimal balance between road noise and safety.

The results indicated that a 25-mm groove spacing helps reduce air-pumping noise and improves vehicle stability. The authors emphasized the need for further comprehensive studies evaluating road noise and skid resistance simultaneously. Friction, as a texture-dependent parameter, strongly influences noise generation mechanisms. Integrating these variables into a single model would enable a more comprehensive prediction of noise levels for textured concrete pavements.

Based on the current review’s aim, it was found that the analyzed article source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

In 2020, Han et al. [52] reported the experimental laboratory noise-level tests in which the OBSI method was applied. The invented machine was named the high-speed test pavement platform. It enables the investigation of road noise levels by considering texture-based analysis of various specimen surfaces, as well as the material type installed directly on the platform. The test device facilitates to perform the OBSI test applying speeds of 20–70 km/h.

The article primarily focused on device validation using asphalt and concrete specimens, nevertheless it also presented curious observations regarding road noise at concrete specimens measured by the OBSI test.

Experimentally following concrete specimens regarding road noise and texture were analyzed:

• smooth texture.
• grooved longitudinally, spacing 25 mm, cutting depth and width 3 mm.
• grooved transversely spacing 25 mm, cutting depth and width 3 mm; 6 mm.

The most essential conclusions related to noise study (test speed 60 km/h) were:

• The lowest noise levels were recorded in smooth texture specimens and for longitudinal grooves. The highest noise level was reached for transverse grooves.
• The largest relative changes reach 10 dB—comparison between smooth texture specimen vs. transverse grooves with a groove depth of 6 mm.
• It was found that ribbed tire (ASTM E501) applied to experiment was averagely quieter than smooth ones (ASTM E524) by approximately 1 dB.

No other complex tests or investigation were mentioned in the analyzed literature source.

Fang et al. [53] (2020) wrote a follow-up article to previous studies [49,51]. The study continued the OBSI noise investigations on concrete pavements in Chinese tunnels. The research was expanded to include surfaces textured with special polymer fibers (referred to as PCC) and exposed aggregate cement concrete pavements (EACCP). Several new asphalt pavements were also evaluated for noise performance.

The OBSI test speed was 60 km/h. The surface texture details for all inspected concrete pavements (due to copyrights) are available in [53]. However, the primary focus was to compare the acoustic performance of the new PCC and EACCP textures.

Based on the OBSI noise measurements, the following conclusions were drawn:

• Polymer fiber-modified surfaces (PCC) reduced tunnel road noise to levels comparable to exposed aggregate textures (EACCP). Test results ranged from 93.27 dB to 99.8 dB.
• To ensure driving comfort, the authors recommend using texturing methods that generate peak noise levels below 105 dB.

Additionally, the study evaluated pavement safety parameters for a comprehensive analysis. The following variable was measured:

• friction—sideway force (60 km/h)—friction coefficient test equipment (JGMC-2).

Regarding the complex study, the focus was to check coexistent correlations between road noise and antiskid resistance and compare results to other previously inspected surface textures. It was proved that:

• A strong correlation exists between OBSI road noise and the sideway force coefficient (SFC). The coefficient of determination (R²) for the polynomial regression model was 0.79.
• An increase in skid resistance correlates with lower road noise. This is likely due to surface texture channels that allow compressed air to escape from under the tires, thereby reducing the air-pumping noise effect.

The authors emphasized the need for further comprehensive studies to better understand the relationship between pavement safety (skid resistance) and road noise. Future research should elucidate how surface texture and other variables influence noise generation mechanisms.

The analyzed article source presented preliminary complex investigation due to noise and safety performance correlation; however, it nor exposes information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor tries to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

Subsequently, in (2020), Scofield [54] published an article summarizing 12 years of US experience with New Generation Concrete Surface (NGCS) pavements (Grind and Groove—GaG) regarding OBSI noise performance. The paper presents findings from both in situ tests and laboratory experiments. No geometric texture details were provided aside from the application methods, focusing primarily on NGCS and Conventional Diamond Grinding (CDG) textures.

Based on the OBSI noise measurements, the following findings were reported:

• NGCS surfaces can provide an average noise level of 99 dB, which is the lowest among known non-porous textures, particularly compared to CDG.
• NGCS surfaces undergo acoustic degradation over time due to traffic-induced structural changes, with the average noise level increasing to 103 dB during service.
• Laboratory experiments using OBSI testing showed that modifying the cutting configurations in NGCS technology affects noise levels as follows:
  • Shallower grinds reduced road noise by an average of 0.5 dB.
  • Varying blade widths yielded inconsistent results, requiring further investigation.
  • Narrower spacers reduced road noise by more than 1 dB on average.

The authors emphasized that the laboratory experiments used only one concrete mix, which is a significant limitation. Furthermore, these configurations and their acoustic impacts must be verified under in situ conditions.

The article also presents findings on pavement safety parameters, such as skid resistance and longitudinal roughness (IRI), although the testing equipment was not specified. Additionally, these results were not integrated into a comprehensive analysis to determine correlations or explain noise generation mechanisms. Instead, all safety parameters were evaluated independently.

The analyzed article source nor expose information about pavement construction technical data (layers, material parameters, etc.) nor try to consider them in road noise investigation, as well as in safety (in one complex study).

Then, in (2022), Mikhailenko et al. [55] published a review work, where various road noise and texture test methods as well as pavement surface textures (asphalt and concrete) were presented and described. Although the article is not aimed at the OBSI application, as well as a complex study of PCC/NGCS pavements, some important observations were highlighted related to road noise, considering current article limited scope.

• Very few studies have investigated road noise using the OBSI method, particularly regarding NGCS textures and exposed aggregate PCC pavements.
• Conventionally grooved PCC pavements are 1 to 5 dB louder than exposed aggregate surfaces.
• NGCS textures can be up to 5 dB quieter than conventional PCC pavements.
• Further research is required to validate these findings using the OBSI method. Moreover, comprehensive studies are needed to evaluate the correlation between road noise and pavement safety parameters, as well as their combined impact on noise generation.

In the article source, no complex investigation regarding road noise and safety was discussed, nor were pavement structure details exposed and considered as a complex study related to road noise (with OBSI test appliance).

In (2022), Lee et al. [56] published a conference paper investigating road noise using the OBSI method. Noise levels were measured on concrete highways in South Korea. The test sections featured two surface textures: new longitudinal grooving, and rehabilitated longitudinal grooving applied over deteriorated longitudinal tining. No geometric texture details were provided aside from the application methods.

The primary aim was to compare the noise levels of these two texture solutions at an OBSI test speed of 100 km/h. The following observations were made:

• Rehabilitated grooving reduced surface noise by an average of 0.3 dB compared to new grooving.
• OBSI measurements at speeds above 100 km/h may be unstable and require further investigation.

No complex tests were performed and discussed. Moreover, no pavement details were presented as well as considered referring to noise and safety.

In (2022), Smith et al. [57] published a report for the National Concrete Pavement Technology Center. It presented a guide for designing cost-effective concrete pavements in the USA, based on years of national experience. This was the first global publication to detail every stage of the construction and rehabilitation processes for both PCC and NGCS pavements.

The report includes a chapter on OBSI noise measurements, primarily comparing Conventional Diamond Grinding (CDG) and NGCS textures (Figure 18). This comparison evaluated long-term acoustic degradation. The authors did not provide specific geometric texture details or pavement structural data, focusing solely on the application methods.

The main conclusions regarding OBSI noise measurements were:

• NGCS surfaces provide an average long-term noise reduction of 1.4 dB compared to CDG textures.
• Frequent fluctuations in noise levels were observed, which were likely caused by construction defects.

No complex analysis regarding noise and safety pavement parameters was presented as well as discussed.

Then, Leng et al. [58] (2023) published a state-of-the-art review on concrete pavement texturing methods. The paper evaluated various surface testing methods regarding road noise and safety parameters, such as skid resistance and texture. While the study provided a general overview of current testing methods and texturing options, it highlighted important findings regarding OBSI road noise measurements, concrete surface texture, and pavement safety.

The main conclusions from this review were:

• As a non-porous option, the NGCS texture can initially reduce noise emissions by 1 to 4 dB and provide excellent long-term skid resistance. However, it undergoes acoustic degradation over time, leading to a noise increase of 1 to 3 dB.
• Conventional diamond grinding and exposed aggregate textures are strong alternatives. They offer similar acoustic and skid resistance properties.
• No studies have thoroughly investigated the correlations and mechanisms linking road noise to other pavement parameters, such as surface texture and skid resistance.
• There is currently no comprehensive, authoritative comparison of concrete pavement textures that simultaneously evaluates road noise, safety parameters, and durability.

In 2024, Lee et al. [59] published preliminary experimental results combining OBSI road noise measurements and surface image analysis to develop an artificial neural network (ANN). This model predicts noise levels based on surface texture and its deterioration.

The experiments were conducted on selected highway sections in South Korea. The study evaluated various pavement types, primarily concrete, and their corresponding textures. The proposed model achieved a preliminary accuracy of 93%, though the authors noted it requires further development.

Noise levels were measured on eleven sections in total, nine of which were concrete. The following concrete surface textures were evaluated:

• transverse tining (TT),
• diamond grinding (DG),
• NGCS (NGCS GaG),
• longitudinal tining (LT).

The article did not provide specific geometric texture configurations, disclosing only the section lengths and their time in service. The OBSI test speed was 100 km/h.

Based on the OBSI noise measurements, the following findings were reported:

• The acoustic spectrum (dB vs. Hz) revealed the highest noise peak at 900 Hz for the TT method. TT was the loudest among the investigated textures.
• The peak noise frequency is highly texture dependent. Furthermore, the study confirmed that the highest pavement noise levels occur within the 800–1150 Hz frequency range.
• NGCS surfaces were, on average, 14 dB quieter than TT concrete surfaces.

Although the study highlighted the innovative use of image analysis and OBSI testing to assess pavement deterioration, it lacked a comprehensive analysis. Safety parameters, pavement structural data, and their correlations with road noise generation mechanisms were neither tested nor discussed.

In 2025, Izevbekhai [60] published a study using the OBSI method to investigate noise generation mechanisms in pervious (porous) concrete pavements. The paper aimed to develop an OBSI road noise prediction model. The following variables were considered:

• macrotexture—MPD measured by circular track meter (CTM),
• longitudinal evenness—IRI—no device details exposed,
• temperature—no device details exposed.

Comprehensive testing, including OBSI measurements, was conducted on Cell 39, a 152-m test section in Minnesota, USA. The pervious concrete pavement featured a transverse tining (TT) texture. No specific geometric texture details were provided, other than references to the pervious mixture design.

Based on the experimental results and the proposed OBSI prediction model, the following conclusions were drawn:

• Increasing concrete porosity improves acoustic performance by reducing noise. However, an optimal porosity threshold exists, above which pavement performance may degrade. This aligns with existing literature.
• Measured road noise for the pervious concrete ranged from 98.1 to 103.9 dB at a test speed of 96 km/h.
• A strong relationship exists between IRI, macrotexture (MPD), temperature, and road noise. The proposed model demonstrated that all these parameters are statistically significant (p-value < 0.05) and achieved a good coefficient of determination (R² = 0.77).
• Incorporating additional variables could improve the accuracy of the noise prediction model. Further research is required in this area.

The authors emphasized that future research would focus on enhancing the model by incorporating other variables and investigating mixture-related performance, particularly identifying the optimal porosity threshold.

This study is among the first to simultaneously evaluate surface safety parameters and OBSI road noise levels. It demonstrated that many of these safety parameters strongly influence acoustic performance.

Although this study incorporated certain safety parameters into the noise generation analysis, a comprehensive investigation of concrete mixture volumetric properties, structural layer parameters, pavement durability, and service life is still lacking. Furthermore, this comprehensive approach has only been applied to one pavement type: pervious concrete with transverse tining.

Yang et al. (2025) [61] developed a 3D model for predicting road noise levels on concrete pavements. The model was based on OBSI and surface texture measurements taken in two directions (2D data).

The comprehensive study, including OBSI and texture testing, was conducted on eight Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) pavement sections, each 200 m long. Each section was tested three times. The test sites were located along an expressway in Zhaotong province, China. The surface textures consisted of primary transverse grooving and secondary longitudinal burlap dragging. The geometric texture configurations (width, depth, and spacing) (due to copyrights) are detailed in two tables in [61].

Based on the OBSI noise measurements, the following observations were made:

• Wider groove spacing (approximately 25 mm or more) improved acoustic energy dispersion, significantly lowering and flattening the noise peaks (in dB).
• Higher test speeds (60 km/h and 80 km/h) increased noise peaks, particularly in the 1000 Hz frequency band. The overall road noise varied by 4 to 7 dB between these speeds.

The study also evaluated macrotexture as a safety parameter and correlated it with the OBSI noise results. Macrotexture was assessed using Mean Profile Depth (MPD) measured by the ZOYON-RTM multifunction detection system. The exact number of lasers was not specified. The MPD value was calculated for every 5 cm interval and averaged over a 100 m distance. To analyze correlations and noise generation mechanisms accurately, texture and OBSI measurements were conducted under identical weather conditions.

The main conclusions from the results were as follows:

• The relationship between pavement texture and tire–pavement noise is highly frequency-dependent.
• Optimizing the texture configuration can effectively mitigate mid-frequency noise.
• The developed 3D regression model achieved a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.97. This indicates that road noise on concrete pavements can be accurately predicted by combining acoustic data (OBSI) with other variables, such as test speed. The authors recommended further development of this comprehensive approach.

Although the study successfully combined OBSI and macrotexture (MPD) results, it did not provide structural pavement data (e.g., layer parameters, material properties) or include them in the noise generation analysis. Nevertheless, this is one of the very few studies to explicitly link detailed geometric texture configurations with road noise generation mechanisms.

In late 2025, Subedi et al. [62] published a state-of-the-art review characterizing the Diamond Grinding (DG) texturing method for concrete pavements. The paper broadly discusses this technique, addressing road noise (measured by OBSI), safety (IRI, smoothness, and skid resistance), and environmental impacts. It also covers pavement service life, long-term costs, and life extension (up to 15 years) through texture rehabilitation. However, these properties were analyzed separately. The study did not comprehensively correlate noise generation mechanisms with safety and pavement durability.

Figure 19 in the cited paper presents typical DG texture configurations for both soft and hard aggregate concrete mixtures.

Although the review does not focus primarily on the OBSI method or comprehensive studies of PCC and NGCS pavements, it highlights several important observations regarding road noise:

• DG textures can initially reduce road noise by up to 6 dB (based on OBSI results) while providing excellent skid resistance. These acoustic and safety benefits are typically maintained for two years.
• Geometric configurations, such as cutting blade spacing, depth, and groove width, require further investigation to optimize pavements for noise, safety, and service life.
• Current acoustic data for DG is limited to short-term studies (2 to 5 years). There is a critical lack of long-term observations (10 to 15 years), particularly in comprehensive studies evaluating noise, safety, and other variables.
• No existing studies have evaluated these combined parameters for Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements (CRCP), including OBSI applications.
• There is a lack of comparative studies evaluating different texturing methods in terms of noise mitigation, safety, and other characteristics using the OBSI method.
• For DG surfaces, comprehensive research is needed to understand the correlations between road noise, safety, and structural parameters. This holistic approach is necessary for all concrete pavement texturing methods to fully understand noise generation phenomena.

All above conclusions are consistent to previous inspected articles—including review ones.

No other articles referred to the current review scope were found in (2026).

3. Discussion and Conclusions

Going through the discussion and conclusion, two summary tables were created based on the literature review. They summarize the scope of OBSI test applications and their main findings, including comprehensive studies on concrete pavements.

Table A1. The OBSI test appliance related to test conditions and most important observations.

Functional Road Category/Country	Investigated Concrete Pavement Texture Type	The OBSI Test Speed [km/h]	The Weather Test Conditions	Most Important Observation Related to Road Noise	Lit. Source
national/USA	BD, DGrov, DGrind, T, EA, PC	various, 40—75	temperature and humidity measured, but no data exposed	the analyzed textures initially may reduce noise by up to 6 dB (noise raise thought exploitation period) the most noise efficient textures were: (PC, EA, DGrind, BG)—(99–104 dB)	[33]
national/USA	BD, DGrov, DGrind, T, EA, PC, SB	97	temperature and humidity measured, but no data exposed	loudest texture was T (104–113 dB), expansion joints between slabs increases average noise by 1.5 dB, and locally at bridge connection up to 5 dB	[34]
national/USA	DGrov, BG, T	no data (probably 97)	no data	applying deeper grooves for DGrov may result noise level reduction by an average of 4 dB road noise level OBSI fluctuations are texture dependent—from DGrov (±1.2 dB) to BG (±0.2 dB)	[35]
national/USA	BD, T	97	no data	part of the day (morning/evening) has no influence on measured tested road noise value the highest noise level peak occurs at 800, 1000, and 1250 [Hz] frequency	[36]
national/USA	BD, T, B, DGrov, DGrind, PCC GaG	97	no data	the highest noise levels were recorded at frequencies of 900–1250 Hz, with an extreme peak at 900 Hz the doweled and anchored concrete pavements are up to 4 dB louder BD is more silent-effective than B or T textures (up to 2 dB)	[37]
national/USA	BD, T, B, DGrov, DGrind, PCC GaG	88–112	no data	the narrower tires (25 ft) generate up to 15 dB higher noise levels than 50 ft-wide tires, tire design—tread, i.e., height and shape, affects the road noise level strongly (up to 7 dB)	[38]
no data/USA	no data exposed	77–112	0, 5, 25, 33 (deg C)	road noise increases linearly with speed and is texture independent pavement temperature strongly affects recorded OBSI noise level (low temperature causes that pavements are louder)	[39]
built interstate (national)/USA	NGCS GaG, PCC GaG, DGrov	no data	no data	no data—flash information about NGCS GaG texturing technology introduction	[40]
national/USA	NGCS GaG, DGrind, T	97	no data	the NGCS GaG surfaces could be quieter up to 3–6 dB than T	[41]
national and provincial/USA	B, DGrind, DGrov, BD, T	97	no data	the texture degrades acoustically in time (2 years observation)—road noise increase observed (2–8 dB)	[42]
national/USA	NGCS GaG, DGrind, EA,	97	no data	NGCS GaG surfaces degrade acoustically averagely by 1.0 (dB) (1–4-year observation) NGCS GaG might be more silent-effective up to 2.1 (dB) than DGrind, EA textures	[43]
no data/USA	DGrind, BD, T	97	no data	T textures are the nosiest ones among inspected reaching up to 111.5 dB road noise level, whereas BD is the quietest (100.5 dB)	[23]
national/USA	DGrind, NGCS GaG, NGCS GaG + DGrind	64, 81, 97	no data	the NGCS texture provides 2–3 times more efficient noise reduction than DGrind texture (average, overall noise reduction—3.6 dB NGCS, 1.6 dB CDG), mixed texturing—NGCS GaG + DGrind might be more effective in road noise reduction than NGCS GaG—(averagely by 0.9 dB)	[44]
national/USA	DGrind	40, 48, 56, 64, 72, 80, 88, 97	no data	tested DGrind texture noise varies in the range of 100.8–104.9 dB (average 102.8 dB)	[45]
national, federal, provincial/USA	BD, T, NGCS GaG, DGrind	97	no data	the NGCS GaG surfaces strongly degrade acoustically—road noise increase was equal to: 2.6 dB (after 4 months), up to 3.8 in (after 29 months) the high traffic as well as studded tires (in comparison to smooth ones) might increase acoustic degradation effect	[46]
national, federal, provincial/USA	NGCS GaG, DGrind	97	no data	over 3 years, the NGCS GaG surfaces deteriorate acoustically greater than DGrind textures—the noise level increase: 3.8 (dB) NGCS GaG, 0.8 (dB) DGrind respectively	[47]
national, provincial/USA	NGDG, T	97	no data	NGDG texture surface needs four times more road traffic [V/h] to generate the same noise level as T texture NGDG texture is more silent-efficient than T texture and could provide road noise decrease from 107.6 (dB) to 101.7 (dB)	[48]
national (tunnels)/China	DGrov	60	no data	Road noise increases with groove depth—it is caused by an air-pumping phenomenon due to the higher groove volume Too long tire-surface contact might cause the resonance effect (road noise increase)	[49]
national/USA	-	100	no data	Source is general review exposing lacks in the OBSI test appliance to road noise investigation (2018): Standard OBSI testing at 100 km/h may underestimate noise levels on urban roads and highways. Therefore, evaluations across a broader speed range (20–140 km/h) are necessary Comprehensive studies evaluating OBSI road noise and texture levels at various speeds are strongly needed. Such data will improve the understanding of noise generation and help develop noise prediction models that incorporate pavement safety factors.	[50]
national (tunnels)/China	DGrov	60, 70, 80, 90, 100	no data	road noise spreads in tunnels in four stage phases the visible relative increase in noise level is equal to 20 dB on entering tunnels, approximately 23 dB on exiting tunnel tunnels road noise spreading phenomenon is not resonate differently in comparison to outside conditions	[51]
laboratory experiment/China	smooth (no texture), DGrov	60 (lab. exp.)	no data	ribbed tire (ASTM E501) applied to experiment was averagely quieter than smooth ones (ASTM E524) by approximately 1 dB the largest relative changes reach 10 dB—comparison between smooth texture specimen vs. transverse grooves with a groove depth of 6 mm	[52]
national (tunnels)/China	EA (modified with fibers), DGrov, DGrov + BD	60	no data	EA (modified with fibers) might reduce road noise more efficiently than DGrov (up to 12 dB) to provide driving comfort in tunnels it is recommended to apply low-noise textures (<105 dB)	[53]
no data/USA	NGCS GaG, DGrind	16, 48 (lab. exp.	4, 16 (deg C)	NGCS GaG surface may degrade acoustically from 99 dB to 103 dB over exploitation period NGCS GaG texture configuration standard might be further optimized to gather better road noise level results (more quieter pavements)	[54]
no data/Switzerland	EA, DGrov, NGCS GaG	no data	no data	the PCC concrete textures made with DGrov are even 1–5 dB louder than surfaces made with EA texture the NGCS GaG texture could be up to 5 dB quieter than conventional PCC pavements surfaces	[55]
national/South Korea	DGrov, T + DGrov	100	no data	applying new texture on exploited might reduce surface noise by 0.3 dB (averagely) OBSI measurements above 100 km/h might be unstable; however, the problem needs to be investigated more deeply	[56]
national/USA	DGrind, NGCS GaG	97	no data	construction errors (texture applying) may cause road noise level fluctuations for the same texture applied	[57]
no data/China	NGCS GaG, PC, EA, DGrind	no data	no data	the NGCS GaG surfaces as a non-porous option might preliminarily reduce noise level 1–4 (dB) and provide excellent skid resistance for a long time period; however, it degrades acoustically over time increasing road noise up to 1–3 (dB).	[58]
national/South Korea	T, DGrind, NGCS GaG	100	no data	the NGCS GaG textures might be 14 dB quieter than T textures the highest noise peak was found at 900 Hz frequency spectrum	[59]
national/USA	PC, PC + T	96	temperature, no data exposed	the concrete porosity increase improves acoustic performance (road noise reduction); however, there is optimal porosity volume level which above it might negatively affect pavement performance PC road noise ranged from 98.1 to 103.9 (dB)	[60]
national/China	DGrov, BD, DGrov + BD	60, 80	no data	wider grooves spacing (around 25mm or more) resulted better acoustic energy dispersion for road noise peaks—(dB) peaks are significantly lower and flattened higher testing speed caused higher noise peaks, especially in 1000 Hz acoustic spectrum up to 4–7 (dB) between tests speeds (60 vs. 80 km/h)	[61]
national/USA	DGrind/NGCS GaG	no data	no data	DGrind texture might reduce road noise initially up to 6 (dB). Acoustic durability and safety properties are kept for 2 years	[62]

details OBSI test appliance related to test conditions and the most important observations.

Table A2. The general OBSI test application main findings and other tests related to road noise investigation (complex study).

Investigated Concrete Pavement Texture Type	Main Findings (Generally)	Other Pavement Performance Tests Conducted Alongside Road Noise Measurements	Other Pavement Performance Tests Data Integrated and Analyzed with OBSI Test Data to Investigate Road Noise Phenomenon Complex [YES/NO]	Literature Source
BD, DGrov, DGrind, T, EA, PC	Road noise level is strictly texture-dependent (type, texture in situ configuration, building texture direction)	macrotexture—RoboTex	NO (only a few general observation)	[33]
BD, DGrov, DGrind, T, EA, PC, SB	As above (research follow-up)	macrotexture—RoboTex, CTM Friction—DFT, longitudinal evenness (IRI)—inertial profiler device (two lasers)	NO (only a few general observation)	[34]
DGrov, BG, T	Modifying texture configuration may positively reduce road noise, The OBSI test results may fluctuate—texture-dependent	macrotexture—CTM, SPM friction—DFT, E 274 trailer	NO	[35]
BD, T	High-level road noise peak is acoustically (frequency) dependent Road noise level is part of the day (morning/evening) independent	macrotexture—RoboTex	NO (only general observation)	[36]
BD, T, B, DGrov, DGrind, PCC GaG	The loudest road noise peak (900 Hz) is texture surface independent	NO	NO	[37]
BD, T, B, DGrov, DGrind, PCC GaG	The noise level increases with increasing speed The road noise is vehicle tire type dependent	NO	NO	[38]
no data exposed	Tire–road noise increases linearly with speed and is texture independent Pavement temperature strongly affects recorded OBSI noise level (low temperature causes that pavements are louder)	NO	NO	[39]
NGCS GaG, PCC GaG, DGrov	No data—flash information about specified texture configuration for further road noise tests	NO	NO	[40]
NGCS GaG, DGrind, T	The NGCS GaG surfaces might be more silent-effective than typical PCC texturing methods	friction number—no data (equipment)	NO	[41]
B, DGrind, DGrov, BD, T	The pavement texture degrades acoustically over time (road noise increase)	macrotexture—RSP longitudinal evenness (IRI)—RSP	NO	[42]
NGCS GaG, DGrind, EA	The NGCS GaG surfaces might be quieter than PCC textures like DGrind and EA; however, acoustic degradation over time is observed	friction force—ASTM E274 locked-wheel skid trailer	NO	[43]
DGrind, BD, T	T textured surfaces are the noisiest, BD the quietest	friction—ASTM E274 locked-wheel skid trailer	NO	[23]
DGrind, NGCS GaG, NGCS GaG + DGrind	NGCS GaG texture is more silent-efficient than DGrind; however, mixing texturing methods might provide better results (road noise reduced)	friction—locked-wheel skid trailer device [ASTM E274], DFT [ASTM E1911] longitudinal evenness (IRI)—RolineTM high speed point laser [ASTM E950], macrotexture—CTM [ASTM E2157], surface drainability—the Outflow Meter (OFM) [ASTM E2380]	NO	[44]
DGrind	Inside DGrind surfaces road noise varies strongly	NO	NO	[45]
BD, T, NGCS GaG, DGrind	Traffic and tire vehicle types impacts surface deterioration (road noise increase) strongly	NO	NO	[46]
NGCS GaG, DGrind	The NGCS GaG surfaces are initially quieter than the DGrind	longitudinal evenness (IRI)—pathway van macrotexture—pathway van rutting—pathway van friction number—no data	NO	[47]
NGDG, T	NGDG texture is more silent-efficient and more durable acoustically than T texture	macrotexture—texture scanner device (ASTM E2157/E1845) longitudinal evenness (IRI)—texture scanner device (ASTM E2157/E1845) friction (skid resistance)—ASTM E274 locked-wheel skid trailer	NO	[48]
DGrov	DGrov texture configuration like deeper grooves strongly affects road noise level	longitudinal evenness (IRI)—continuous roughness tester (LXBP-3) macrotexture—Chinese sanding method friction—friction coefficient test equipment (JGMC-2)	YES (preliminary observations)	[49]
-	Source is general review exposing lacks in the OBSI test appliance to road noise investigation (2018): Standard OBSI testing at 100 km/h may underestimate noise levels on urban roads and highways. Therefore, evaluations across a broader speed range (20–140 km/h) are necessary. Comprehensive studies evaluating OBSI road noise and texture levels at various speeds are strongly needed. Such data will improve the understanding of noise generation and help develop noise prediction models that incorporate pavement safety factors	NO	NO	[50]
DGrov	Road noise spreading in the same way inside and outside regarding tunnel Modifying texture DGrov configuration (disc spacing, cutting depth, width) impacts road noise level (inside analyzed texture)	friction—friction coefficient test equipment (JGMC-2)	NO (only preliminary observation)	[51]
smooth (no texture), DGrov	Outside pavement road noise investigation might be done in laboratory conditions. It may help in finding the optimal texture for concrete pavements (texture configuration)	NO	NO	[52]
EA (modified with fibers), DGrov, DGrov + BD	EA (modified with fibers) textures are road noise reduction efficient	friction—friction coefficient test equipment (JGMC-2)	YES (preliminary observations)	[53]
NGCS GaG, DGrind	The known NGCS GaG texture configuration standard might be optimized successfully	skid resistance—no data longitudinal evenness (IRI)—no data	NO	[54]
EA, DGrov, NGCS GaG	Source is general review—findings and lacks related to quiet pavements (OBSI test appliance) (2022): Very few studies have investigated road noise using the OBSI method, particularly regarding NGCS textures and exposed aggregate PCC pavements Conventionally grooved PCC pavements are louder than exposed aggregate surfaces	NO	NO	[55]
DGrov, T + DGrov	The OBSI test speed might gave max speed limitations	NO	NO	[56]
DGrind, NGCS GaG	Construction errors (texture applying) may cause road noise level fluctuations for the same texture applied	NO	NO	[57]
NGCS GaG, PC, EA, DGrind	Source is general review—findings and lacks related to quiet pavements (OBSI test appliance) (2023): Conventional diamond grinding and exposed aggregate textures are strong alternatives. They offer similar acoustic and skid resistance properties No studies have thoroughly investigated the correlations and mechanisms linking road noise to other pavement parameters, such as surface texture and skid resistance	NO	NO	[58]
T, DGrind, NGCS GaG	The highest road noise peak in frequency spectrum is texture type dependent	NO	NO	[59]
PC, PC + T	Pavement performance data might be combined at once to estimate mathematical model allowing predict the road noise (OBSI) level	macrotexture—CTM, longitudinal evenness (IRI)—no data	YES (preliminary observations)	[60]
DGrov, BD, DGrov + BD	Texture configuration optimization impact road noise strongly (it could be reduced if proper texture regarding it parameters would be applied)	macrotexture—ZOYON-RTM	YES	[61]
DGrind/NGCS GaG	Source is general review—findings and lacks related to quiet concrete pavements (DGrind texture considering OBSI test appliance data) (2025): Optimizing the texture configuration can effectively mitigate mid-frequency noise Road noise on concrete pavements can be accurately predicted by combining acoustic data (OBSI) with other variables, such as test speed. Further comprehensive studies are required	NO	NO	[62]

presents the general OBSI test application main findings and other tests related to road noise investigation (complex study). For clarity, these tables are placed in Appendix A: Table A1—Appendix A.1, Table A2—Appendix A.2.

Based on the review performed, recent studies have extensively evaluated pavement texturing methods. They used the OBSI test to understand tire–pavement noise generation. These analyses guided the development of noise reduction strategies for concrete pavements. Global research on this topic has been conducted in countries such as the USA, South Korea, and China. However, comprehensive studies on concrete pavement noise using the OBSI test remain a novel and open research field.

Although this research area is broad, comprehensive analyses remain scarce. The literature review shows that previous studies have not evaluated all pavement performance parameters simultaneously. A comprehensive study is necessary to fully understand tire–pavement noise on concrete surfaces.

Key pavement properties must be analyzed together. These include acoustic performance (measured by OBSI), safety (IRI, MPD, skid resistance), durability, and service life. Identifying the parameters that influence noise generation improves the understanding of this phenomenon. Consequently, it allows for correlating acoustic, safety, durability parameters and finally economic costs. Exploring these aspects can help optimize concrete pavement construction and surface texture design.

Furthermore, the statistical significance of these correlations must be verified. This data can be used to predict OBSI noise levels for both newly constructed and aging concrete pavements, accounting for long-term acoustic degradation. This remains an unexplored research area.

Alluding to road complex investigation aspects, recent studies (preliminary observations) analyzed the correlation between road noise (OBSI level) and pavement performance parameters, specifically macrotexture (MPD) and longitudinal evenness (IRI). Preliminary regression models show that both macrotexture [49,61] or longitudinal evenness [49] significantly impact road noise levels.

However, it is worth noting that in fact MPD (macrotexture) is the primary parameter influencing road noise level [12,13,14,63,64]. It measures pavement macrotexture with wavelengths from 0.5 mm to 50 mm. MPD (in simplicity) governs the two main mechanisms of noise generation:

• Tire Vibration (low to mid-frequencies; <1000 Hz). Coarse, positive macrotexture causes tire tread blocks to impact the surface. This induces radial vibrations in the tire carcass. Higher MPD increases low-frequency noise.
• Air Pumping (high frequencies; >1000 Hz). Rolling tires trap and compress air between the tread and the pavement. Negative macrotexture (voids, grooves, porosity) provides air escape channels. This reduces air pumping noise.

Conversely, IRI measures longitudinal surface unevenness (megatexture and roughness) using longer wavelengths ranging from 1.2 m to 30 m [65]. IRI primarily determines ride comfort. These wavelengths are too long to induce the high-frequency acoustic vibrations characteristic of tire-pavement noise [66].

Furthermore, vehicle suspension dynamics heavily influence IRI measurements. Consequently, IRI relates to noise generation only indirectly or insignificantly. This relationship requires confirmation in future studies.

Based on the literature review it is also worth noting that existing studies primarily focus on OBSI noise measurements for concrete pavements in non-urban areas. However, noise annoyance mainly affects urban areas intersected by high-traffic highways and expressways. From an engineering perspective, future research should investigate concrete pavement noise in these urban environments. Toll plazas represent a similar research area. Although traffic speeds are significantly lower there, vehicle congestion and engine noise generate a combined acoustic effect. This effect is comparable to high-speed tire-pavement noise in cities. This aspect will be considered in future labor.

Summarizing the following study outcomings, it could be concluded that:

• There is a lack of comprehensive road noise phenomenon investigation using the OBSI test application and also (simultaneously):
  • longitudinal evenness (IRI);
  • transverse evenness (rutting);
  • macrotexture (MTD);
  • surface roughness (anti-slip properties—friction coefficient) using, for example, Traction Watcher One (TWO) or Slip Resistance Tester v3 (SRT-3) equipment—moreover, no articles were found using this test equipment;
  • surface load-bearing capacity (endurance) using FWD (Falling Weight Deflectometer)—moreover, no articles were found using this equipment and test in the aforementioned study);
  • exploitation period;
  • atmospheric conditions—temperature, humidity.

Few comprehensive studies have evaluated road noise (using the OBSI test), macrotexture, and longitudinal evenness together. Existing research indicates a strong correlation among these parameters. However, authors frequently emphasize the need for further investigation in this field.

• Noise level was not broadly analyzed for specific construction solutions, including the relationship between noise and the construction solution i.e.,:
  • the layers and material of the structure (no articles found combining road noise level with concrete pavement material and layer layout applied);
  • the connection/implementation method (dowels, anchors, continuous reinforcement);
  • the joint configuration of the connected panels (transverse, longitudinal).
• The impact of various surface texturing configurations on noise generation lacks comprehensive analysis. These configurations include combined textures and specific in situ application parameters. For example, diamond grooving parameters involve blade spacing, groove width, and cutting depth. Historically, most publications omitted these details (were not tested, excluding NGCS GaG case). However, research focus on this area has increased since 2020.
• Very few studies evaluate OBSI noise levels for shot blasting on concrete pavements. Only one or two papers address this specific texturing method.
• There are few studies on low-noise concrete pavements (PCC and NGCS) constructed using the following texture methods (OBSI test appliance): exposed aggregate (PCC), grinding (PCC), and grinding and grooving (NGCS). Similarly, a small number of studies are also reported on porous/pervious concrete pavements.
• There are no comprehensive studies on OBSI, MTD, IRI, TWO (u)/SRT-3 (u) conducted at a standardized measurement speed, e.g., 60 [km/h] as well as in identical weather conditions.
• The full speed spectrum (10–120 km/h) for OBSI testing on concrete pavements has not been thoroughly investigated. Comprehensive noise studies rarely cover this entire range.
• No existing articles correlate road noise with pavement structural layout and long-term endurance in a single comprehensive study.
• Few publications link sound measurements with concrete structural parameters, texturing methods, and texture configuration. Specifically, analyses focusing on the 800–1150 Hz frequency range—which contains peak noise levels within the 0–5000 Hz band—are scarce.
• Comprehensive analyses of OBSI noise levels under variable weather conditions (e.g., moisture, temperature) are missing. The impact of weather on combined acoustic and structural pavement performance requires further investigation.
• No established correlations exist between concrete texturing configurations (e.g., groove spacing, depth, and width) and noise levels. These correlations are necessary to optimize the balance between acoustic performance, traffic safety, and pavement durability.
• Few studies address pavement acoustic durability and long-term noise increase. While short-term acoustic degradation data exists for specific textures, broader investigations covering a 5- to 15-year period are needed.
• The literature lacks guidelines on maintaining low-noise concrete pavements throughout their entire service life.

4. Future Research Work

Based on these conclusions, comprehensive research is required to determine the correlations among pavement texture, structural parameters, and road noise (OBSI). Analyzed variables include macrotexture, longitudinal and transverse evenness, skid resistance (friction coefficient measured by TWO or SRT-3), weather conditions, and measurement speed. Structural parameters comprise layer design, materials, and expected load-bearing capacity.

Future research will conduct comprehensive field tests on Polish roads, including OBSI noise application. These comprehensive tests will simultaneously measure noise levels, macrotexture (RSP-3—MPD), transverse and longitudinal evenness (RSP), skid resistance (TWO, SRT-3), load-bearing capacity (FWD), and weather conditions. Testing is planned for sections of the A-4 and A-2 highways and the S-8 expressway. This major undertaking requires coordinating multiple research teams, and preliminary work is already underway.

These research directions will provide a broader understanding of tire–pavement noise generation. Specifically, they will clarify how noise levels relate to concrete surface texture configurations and other correlated performance variables.

The results will form the basis for developing design and implementation guidelines for concrete pavements. These guidelines will help balance low noise levels, operational safety (load-bearing capacity, skid resistance, longitudinal evenness), and construction costs. Additionally, the guidelines will aid in selecting the optimal texturing method and configuration. While these tasks represent long-term objectives, they constitute the core of the proposed research plan.