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Article

Can Anaerobically Digested Food Effluent Support Arthrospira platensis Cultivation in Open Ponds?

by
Mohammadjavad Raeisossadati
1,†,
Odgerel Bumandalai
1,2,† and
Navid Reza Moheimani
1,3,*
1
Algae Innovation Hub, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia
2
Laboratory of Microbial Synthesis, Institute of Biology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar 13330, Mongolia
3
Centre for Sustainable Aquatic Ecosystems, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 3115; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063115
Submission received: 12 February 2025 / Revised: 8 March 2025 / Accepted: 11 March 2025 / Published: 13 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Approaches to Water Treatment: Challenges and Trends)
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Abstract

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This study explores the feasibility of using anaerobically digested food effluent as a sustainable and cost-effective alternative nutrient source for large-scale Spirulina cultivation, reducing production costs while improving biomass productivity in outdoor wastewater treatment systems.

Abstract

The cultivation of Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina) is well-established in applied phycology, but the high cost of conventional media limits large-scale production. Anaerobically digested food effluent (ADFE), rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, offers a cost-effective alternative while mitigating environmental impacts. This study evaluated ADFE as a partial replacement for Zarrouk’s medium, with 37.5%, 50%, and 70% substitutions, the latter two added incrementally. Cultivation was conducted in paddlewheel-driven raceway ponds under outdoor conditions for 22 days during the Australian autumn. The highest biomass productivity (8.83 g m−2 d−1) was achieved with 70% ADFE, significantly outperforming Zarrouk’s medium (p < 0.05). Chlorophyll a content remained unaffected (p > 0.05), and ammonium (N-NH4+) declined to near zero by day 9, indicating efficient nutrient uptake. These findings demonstrate that staged ADFE addition can successfully replace up to 70% of Zarrouk’s medium while maintaining robust A. platensis growth, highlighting its potential as a sustainable alternative for large-scale microalgal cultivation.

1. Introduction

According to recent estimates, 359 billion cubic meters of wastewater are produced annually worldwide, with 48% released untreated into the environment [1]. Untreated wastewater poses serious risks to human health and natural ecosystems, as pathogens in water are responsible for approximately 80% of illnesses and deaths in developing countries [2]. Additionally, wastewater from industrial, agricultural, and domestic activities often contains harmful chemicals that contaminate and degrade natural habitats and wildlife ecosystems [3]. Therefore, effective wastewater treatment systems are essential to enable recycling and reuse for environmental conservation.
Food waste accounts for a significant proportion of municipal solid waste globally [4]. Anaerobic digestion (AD) is commonly used to process food waste, producing anaerobically digested food effluent (ADFE) as a byproduct [5]. Due to its high concentrations of nutrients such as ammonium and phosphorus, ADFE cannot be discharged directly into the environment, as it may cause eutrophication and other ecological issues. Residual nutrients in ADFE can be removed using physical, chemical, or biological treatment methods [6], but physical and chemical approaches are costly and generate secondary pollution. Biological treatments, by contrast, offer a cost-effective, environment-friendly alternative using microorganisms to remove nutrients [7].
One form of biological treatment is the use of efficient microorganisms for removing nutrients and toxic metals from wastewater, including microalgae [6]. Many microalgal species (e.g., Chlorella, Scenedesmus [8], and Desmodesmus [9]), as well as filamentous microalgae (e.g., Rhizoclonium and Ulothrix [10]), have been cultivated in different wastewater effluents to reduce nutrient concentrations, particularly ammonia. In AD effluents, nitrogen typically exists in the form of ammonia, comprising 70–82% of the total nitrogen content. Ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) concentrations in anaerobically digested effluents range from 1000–6000 mg L−1, and levels above 100 mg L−1 have been shown to inhibit microalgal growth [11]. The ability of microalgae to grow on different effluents and tolerate high ammonia levels varies across microalgae species. For instance, it has been shown that Chlorella sp. can grow in anaerobic digestate piggery effluent (ADPE) with up to 1600 mg NH3-N [12]. Moreover, the ammonia removal efficiencies vary from 30 to 100% depending on the species and conditions [13]. Therefore, identifying optimal microalgae species for specific wastewater types is critical for improving nutrient removal efficiency and growth rate.
Among various microalgae, Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) has gained attention due to its applications in food, phycocyanin production, fertilizers, feed, and bioplastics [14]. However, the high cost of chemical-based culture medium for Spirulina cultivation remains a major limitation [15]. It was estimated that the cost at approximately USD 0.08 L−1, accounting for around 35% of the total Spirulina biomass production cost [16]. Efforts to reduce expenses have included substituting Zarrouk’s medium components with more cost-effective alternatives, such as commercial fertilizers and locally available chemicals, which have shown promise for large-scale Spirulina cultivation [17]. Studies have demonstrated that replacing conventional media with wastewater effluents, such as saline whey wastewater, anaerobically digested swine effluent, and lac wastewater, can also significantly reduce cultivation costs [18,19,20]. However, these effluents present challenges, including variability in nutrient concentrations, potential toxicity, and turbidity [21]. Consequently, these factors can result in lower nutrient content and biomass productivity compared to conventional media, such as Zarrouk medium [15]. Most importantly, Spirulina has shown its ability to efficiently reduce ammonia levels by 20% to 99% [22,23]. Despite its potential, there is limited knowledge on the use of ADFE as a nutrient source for Spirulina cultivation. Anaerobic digestates have been explored as alternative culture media for Spirulina cultivation, with previous studies demonstrating their potential to support microalgal growth under specific conditions [24]. However, the unique composition of ADFE and its effects on Spirulina remain largely unexplored. Unlike other digestates, ADFE may have distinct nutrient compositions and alkalinity levels, necessitating further investigation into its suitability as a substitute for synthetic culture media. This study aims to assess the potential of ADFE to replace up to 70% of Zarrouk medium nutrients for Spirulina cultivation, with a focus on growth performance, biomass productivity, and chlorophyll a content under outdoor conditions.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Microalga Culture

Arthrospira platensis MUR 129 species was obtained from the culture collection of the Algae Research and Development Centre at Murdoch University. The food waste was collected from Richgro Garden Product, Jandakot, WA, Australia. The physicochemical properties of undiluted food waste are summarised in Table 1. The A. platensis culture was grown outdoors for two months (February–March 2022), and the inoculum was taken from the acclimatized outdoor cultures grown over a year in similar conditions and maintained semi-continuously [12]. Outdoor paddlewheel raceway ponds were used for the cultivation system with the dimensions of 13 cm × 26 cm × 80 cm (W × H × L) and a surface area of 0.1 m2. The working volume of cultures was 20 L at the depth of 20 cm.

2.2. Experimental Setup and Cultivation Conditions

The overall experimental design is summarized in Figure 1, showing the different ADFE concentrations used for Arthrospira cultivation.
Four treatments were established as shown in Table 2: (1) Zarrouk medium (control, no ADFE), (2) 37.5% ADFE, (3) 50% ADFE, and (4) 70% ADFE. Nutrient concentrations in all media were adjusted to achieve a total nitrogen level of 415 mg L−1, equivalent to Zarrouk medium, with nitrogen supplied from both Zarrouk and ADFE sources (Table 3).
Our preliminary studies revealed that replacing all nutrients with ADFE at 50% and 70% significantly inhibited Spirulina growth, likely due to potential toxicity. To mitigate this issue, ADFE for the 50% and 70% media was added incrementally in five steps on days 0, 1, 5, 8, and 13. These specific days were chosen based on the N-NH4+ concentration in the culture medium, ensuring that nitrogen levels were replenished before reaching depletion. In contrast, for the 37.5% ADFE medium, 37.5% of all nutrients were supplied exclusively by ADFE as a single dose at the start of the experiment.
The experiment was conducted in batch mode over 22 days, beginning on 4 April 2022, with each treatment tested in triplicate. The working volume for all cultures was maintained at 20 L and daily evaporation loss was compensated by adding tap water.

2.3. Biomass and Chlorophyll a Determination

Microalgae biomass concentration (AFDW) was analysed according to the methods described by Matos et al. [24], where a known volume of culture was filtered, dried at 105 °C for 24 h, and then combusted at 550 °C for 4 h to remove organic content. The difference in weight before and after combustion was used to calculate AFDW.
Volumetric and areal biomass productivities were determined based on biomass changes over time. The chlorophyll extraction method of Jeffrey and Humphrey was used for chlorophyll a extraction [26], where for biomass collected via filtration, pigments were extracted using 90% acetone, and absorbance was measured at 664 nm and 750 nm using a spectrophotometer. The chlorophyll a content was then calculated based on standard equations for microalgal pigment analysis.

2.4. Analytical Methods

Samples were analyzed for N-NH4+ after compensating for evaporative losses with tap water. Measurements were performed using a Hanna HI 83099 photometer (Hanna Instruments, Woonsocket, RI, USA).

2.5. Public Data Sources

Daily data on irradiance, temperature, and rainfall from 4 April 2022 to 26 April 2022 were obtained from the Jandakot Airport weather station, situated 4.5 km southeast of the study site.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

The differences in growth and nutrient removal rates among microalgae cultivated in raceway ponds with varying N-NH3 concentrations were statistically analysed using one-way ANOVA. Before performing the ANOVA, the assumptions of normality (Shapiro–Wilk test) and homogeneity of variance (Brown–Forsythe test) were assessed and met, and data were screened for significant outliers. Statistical analyses were conducted in Python (version 3.12.3) with a significance level set at p < 0.05. Code is provided in the Supplementary Data for reproducibility. Post hoc multiple comparisons were performed using the Holm–Sidak method to identify significant differences between group means. Results are presented as means ± standard deviation (SD).

3. Results

3.1. Culture Conditions

The experiment was carried out in April 2022. The solar radiation was between 2.7 and 5.2 kWh/m2 and the temperature was between 13 and 26 °C (Figure 2A,B). The rainfall was minimal, ranging from 0.6 mm to 15.8 mm per day on occasion (Figure 2C). The pH of the cultures was left uncontrolled but monitored throughout the culture period to ensure that it remained within the range suitable for growth of Arthrospira (9.0 to 9.5). The A. platensis inoculum used in this study was grown outdoors from February to March 2022 for two months prior to the experiment. As described in Section 2.2, the ADFE was added gradually in five steps for the 50% and 70% ADFE media to investigate the effect of gradual ADFE addition on biomass yield and productivity.

3.2. Physicochemical Parameters and Ammonium Content

Figure 2 illustrates the biomass yields of A. platensis cultures grown with varying percentages of ADFE. Throughout the growth period, cultures grown in 70% and 50% ADFE consistently outperformed those grown with 37.5% ADFE and Zarrouk medium. By day 22, the biomass yield reached 1.38 g L−1 and 1.24 g L−1 in the 70% and 50% ADFE media, respectively, representing a 20–35% increase compared to the Zarrouk medium (One-way ANOVA, p < 0.05). In contrast, slower growth was observed in the 37.5% ADFE (Figure 2E) and the Zarrouk medium (Figure 2D), resulting in significantly lower final yields. These results highlight the improved biomass productivity achieved with 50% and 70% ADFE media, demonstrating their superior efficacy over the traditional Zarrouk medium.
The N-NH4+ concentrations of the cultures at day 0 and 9 were shown in Figure 2D–G. Ammonium content significantly decreased in all ADFE media between days 0 and 9. In the 37.5% ADFE medium, ammonium decreased by 97.7% (Figure 2E), while in the 50% ADFE-addition medium, it dropped by 60.1% (Figure 2F). The 70% ADFE-addition medium showed the highest ammonium levels, with a 62.8% decrease of ammonium contentment between days 0 and 9 (Figure 2G). These results indicate that ammonium levels decreased significantly across all ADFE treatments (One-way ANOVA, p < 0.05), with higher residual ammonium concentrations observed in the higher ADFE concentrations (50% and 70% ADFE media).
The results demonstrated that media containing ADFE significantly improved the overall productivity of A. platensis cultures compared to the standard Zarrouk medium (Table 4). Overall volumetric and aerial biomass productivity was 70% ADFE-addition medium = 50% ADFE-addition medium (>37.5% ADFE-addition medium > Zarrouk media.
The maximum specific growth rate (µmax) ranged from 0.093 ± 0.03 day−1 in the Zarrouk medium to 0.13 ± 0.01 day−1 in the 70% ADFE medium, showing no significant variation among media. Notably, µmax in the Zarrouk medium occurred later in the growth period (days 18–22), while the 50%, 70%, and 37.5% ADFE media achieved µmax earlier, between days 13–16. These findings highlight the efficacy of ADFE addition, particularly at 50% and 70% levels, in improving A. platensis productivity.

3.3. Chlorophyll a Content of Cells

Arthrospira is recognized as one of the algal species with the highest chlorophyll a content in nature, contributing significantly to its photosynthetic efficiency and biomass production [27]. In this study, chlorophyll a content remained stable across treatments, varying between 6.95 ± 0.76 mg/g biomass (Zarrouk) and 7.17 ± 0.98 mg/g biomass (50% ADFE-addition), suggesting that nutrient source had a minimal effect on pigment composition (Table 4).

4. Discussion

The utilization of food waste as a nutrient source for microalgae cultivation provides a sustainable alternative to synthetic media while offering a rich source of inorganic nutrients, such as ammonium. Previous studies have successfully cultivated Scenedesmus and Chlorella species using ADFE [28]. However, research on ADFE’s feasibility for Arthrospira platensis growth, particularly under outdoor conditions, remains limited. This study aimed to assess the effects of incremental ADFE addition on A. platensis productivity, optimizing nitrogen utilization while mitigating potential ammonia toxicity.
One of the key challenges in cultivating A. platensis using wastewater-based media is ammonia toxicity, which inhibits growth and can lead to culture failure. High ammonia-nitrogen concentrations disrupt cellular metabolism [29] and, in open raceway ponds with high pH (>9), ammonia stripping can further reduce nitrogen availability and lower growth efficiency [12]. Raeisossadati et al. [28] demonstrated that at higher pH, ammonium (NH4+) converts into volatile ammonia (NH3), which is lost to the atmosphere, potentially limiting nitrogen uptake. In this study, A. platensis cultures were maintained at pH~10, suggesting that some ammonia loss may have occurred.
To mitigate ammonia stress, incremental ADFE addition was employed for 50% and 70% treatments instead of a single-dose approach. This approach minimized ammonia shock while ensuring a sustained nitrogen supply. Results demonstrated that incremental ADFE addition significantly increased biomass productivity, with 70% ADFE achieving the highest biomass yield (1.38 g/L), outperforming Zarrouk medium and 37.5% ADFE cultures. Specifically, the 70% and 50% ADFE treatments increased biomass productivity by 0.92 g/L and 0.55 g/L, respectively, compared to Zarrouk medium. A similar study by Debowski et al. [30] evaluated A. platensis cultivated in media containing 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% distilled liquid digestate, finding that 50% digestate yielded the highest biomass productivity. Our study further demonstrates that incremental addition plays a crucial role in nutrient balance, avoiding ammonia toxicity while sustaining growth.
The initial ammonium concentration significantly influenced A. platensis nitrogen uptake. In the 37.5% ADFE treatment, where all ADFE was added at once, ammonium started at 115 mg/L and was rapidly depleted by day 9, indicating efficient utilization but risking early nitrogen depletion. In contrast, the 50% and 70% ADFE treatments, with incremental additions, had much lower initial ammonium concentrations (34–37 mg/L) at day 0, leading to a more gradual decline. This controlled nitrogen availability likely reduced ammonia stress while sustaining prolonged biomass accumulation. Uggetti et al. [31] found that increasing digestate concentration reduced initial growth rates but significantly enhanced biomass production, aligning with our findings. The staged addition strategy in 50% and 70% ADFE cultures optimized nitrogen assimilation, ensuring stable A. platensis productivity.
The residual ammonium concentrations in the 50% and 70% ADFE treatments correlated with increased biomass productivity. The 70% ADFE treatment achieved the highest volumetric (44.2 mg L−1 d−1) and areal productivity (8.83 g m−2 d−1), while a gradual ammonium decline sustained nitrogen availability. In contrast, the 37.5% ADFE treatment exhibited lower productivity despite efficient initial ammonium uptake, likely due to early nitrogen depletion. This aligns with findings by Tam and Wong (1996) [32], who reported reduced microalgal growth at both low (10 mg N L−1) and excessive (750–1000 mg N L−1) ammonium concentrations, emphasizing the need for an optimal nitrogen range. Although 50% and 70% ADFE showed similar productivity trends, the slightly higher yield in 70% ADFE suggests that increased nutrient availability provided a minor advantage without inducing ammonia stress.
The maximum biomass yield in this study (1.38 g L−1) is comparable to previous outdoor raceway pond studies. For instance, Magro et al. [33] reported a biomass yield of 1.24 g L−1, while Earthrise Farms achieved 8.2 g m−2 d−1 under optimized conditions [34]. Similarly, Magro et al. [33] reported 11.75 g m−2 d−1, closely aligning with our incremental ADFE addition strategy, which yielded 8.83 g m−1 d−1.
The stable chlorophyll a content observed across all ADFE treatments suggests that A. platensis adapted to variable nutrient conditions without compromising pigment production. This aligns with previous studies demonstrating Spirulina’s resilience in wastewater-based media. For instance, Kaushik et al. [35] reported unchanged chlorophyll levels in Spirulina cultivated in digested distillery effluent, supporting its adaptability to alternative nutrient sources. Additionally, 10% tofu wastewater was found to enhance chlorophyll and carotenoid content [36], further confirming A. platensis’s ability to utilize organic and inorganic nitrogen sources effectively.
The adaptive responses of A. platensis in ADFE-supplemented media are comparable to those observed in other microalgae cultivated in nutrient-rich wastewaters. For instance, A. platensis grown in digested distillery effluent demonstrated efficient nitrogen assimilation and stable chlorophyll content, similar to our findings with ADFE [37]. Likewise, cultures cultivated in tofu wastewater showed enhanced pigment synthesis and biomass accumulation [36], indicating effective utilization of organic and inorganic nitrogen sources. These studies suggest that A. platensis exhibits metabolic flexibility across different wastewater types, with staged nitrogen availability playing a key role in optimizing growth and productivity.
These findings highlight ADFE’s potential as a sustainable and cost-effective alternative for large-scale Spirulina cultivation. The staged addition strategy effectively managed nitrogen levels, reducing ammonia toxicity while maintaining stable productivity [38]. Scaling up this method will require optimizing ADFE dosing and assessing long-term stability in continuous systems. Real-time ammonium monitoring and automated dosing could enhance efficiency, ensuring sustained nutrient availability. Additionally, integrating ADFE-based cultivation with wastewater treatment systems could provide a dual benefit of biomass production and nutrient recycling [39]. Future research should explore higher ADFE concentrations (>70%) to determine optimal thresholds, investigate cost-effective strategies for pH stabilization and nutrient bioavailability, and assess the economic feasibility of large-scale implementation [40]. Long-term studies on microbial interactions, ammonia tolerance, and environmental impacts will further ensure operational feasibility in commercial settings [41].

5. Conclusions

This study demonstrates that A. platensis cultivated in 50% and 70% ADFE-addition media achieved significantly higher biomass productivity than the Zarrouk medium, with no adverse effects on chlorophyll a content. The staged ADFE addition strategy effectively mitigated ammonia toxicity, sustained nitrogen availability, and optimized nutrient assimilation, supporting prolonged biomass accumulation. Higher residual ammonium in 50% and 70% ADFE treatments correlated with enhanced productivity, aligning with previous findings that emphasize the importance of controlled nitrogen supply. These results highlight ADFE as a viable and cost-effective alternative to synthetic media for large-scale Spirulina cultivation. Future studies should explore higher ADFE concentrations, long-term stability, and industrial-scale integration to optimize productivity and sustainability.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app15063115/s1, Python script for statistical analysis.

Author Contributions

O.B.: Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing—original draft preparation, M.R.: Conceptualization, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing—original draft preparation, Supervision, N.R.M.: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing—reviewing and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge Richgro bioenergy plant in Jandakot, Western Australia for sourcing anaerobic digestate food effluent (ADFE) used in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Applsci 15 03115 g001
Figure 1. Experimental design for Spirulina cultivation in Zarrouk medium with varying ADFE concentrations (37.5%, 50%, and 70%).
Figure 1. Experimental design for Spirulina cultivation in Zarrouk medium with varying ADFE concentrations (37.5%, 50%, and 70%).
Applsci 15 03115 g001
Applsci 15 03115 g002
Figure 2. Biomass yield (Ash-free dry weight; g L−1) and ammonium concentration of A. platensis cultures in different media. (A) irradiance, (B) temperatures, (C) rainfall, (D) biomass yield in Zarrouk, (E) biomass yield in 37.5% ADFE, (F) biomass yield in 50% ADFE, (G) biomass yield in 70% ADFE. Data are mean ± SD, n = 3. Arrows indicate the timing of ADFE addition to the respective media.
Figure 2. Biomass yield (Ash-free dry weight; g L−1) and ammonium concentration of A. platensis cultures in different media. (A) irradiance, (B) temperatures, (C) rainfall, (D) biomass yield in Zarrouk, (E) biomass yield in 37.5% ADFE, (F) biomass yield in 50% ADFE, (G) biomass yield in 70% ADFE. Data are mean ± SD, n = 3. Arrows indicate the timing of ADFE addition to the respective media.
Applsci 15 03115 g002
Table 1. Chemical composition of raw ADFE used as a medium for microalga consortium.
Table 1. Chemical composition of raw ADFE used as a medium for microalga consortium.
ParameterValue
Ammonia (mg N-NH3 L−1)2800
Nitrate (mg N-NO3− L−1)<1
NOx-N (mg L−1)<1
Total nitrogen (mg L−1)5300
Total phosphorus (mg L−1)520
Total iron (mg L−1)16
Total calcium (mg L−1)170
Magnesium (mg L−1)24
Chemical oxygen demand, COD (mg L−1)50,000
Potassium (mg L−1)120
Table 2. Experimental setup for Spirulina cultivation with Zarrouk and ADFE media.
Table 2. Experimental setup for Spirulina cultivation with Zarrouk and ADFE media.
Treatment GroupZarrouk (%)ADFE (%)Description
Zarrouk1000No ADFE added
37.5% ADFE62.537.5ADFE added on day 0
50% ADFE-addition5050ADFE added incrementally on days 0, 1, 5, 8, 13
70% ADFE-addition3070ADFE added incrementally on days 0, 1, 5, 8, 13
Table 3. Nutrient composition of media used in 20 L experimental ponds.
Table 3. Nutrient composition of media used in 20 L experimental ponds.
NutrientsZarrouk37.5% ADFE50% ADFE70% ADFEChemical Detail
NaHCO3 (g)336210168100.8Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
N-NO3−1 (g) *8.35.194.152.49Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
NaCl (g)2012.5106Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
K2SO4 (g)2012.5106Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA
K2HPO4 (g)106.2553Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA
Solution A (mL) **2012.5106Composition
specified in the method
Solution B (mL) **2012.5106
Solution Fe (mL) **2012.5106
N-NH3 (g) *03.174.155.81Richgro, Garden Product, Jandakot, WA, Australia
* The asterisk indicates the amount of pure nitrogen contributed by potassium nitrate and ADFE sources, respectively, in each medium. ** Compositions for these solutions can be found in Nematollahi et al. [25].
Table 4. Average areal and volumetric productivity, maximum yield (AFDW), and chlorophyll a of A. platensis cultures in different treatments. Data are mean ± SD, n = 3. Different letters indicate the significance of data in each column (One way ANOVA p < 0.05).
Table 4. Average areal and volumetric productivity, maximum yield (AFDW), and chlorophyll a of A. platensis cultures in different treatments. Data are mean ± SD, n = 3. Different letters indicate the significance of data in each column (One way ANOVA p < 0.05).
TreatmentOverall Volumetric Productivity
(mg L−1 d−1)		Overall Areal Productivity
(g m−2 d−1)		Maximum Specific Growth Rate (μmax)Chlorophyll a
(mg/g Biomass)
Zarrouk22.9 ± 1.76 a4.58 ± 0.35 a0.093 ± 0.03 a6.95 ± 0.76 a
37.5% ADFE28.3 ± 1.71 b5.66 ± 0.34 b0.13 ± 0.03 a6.98 ± 0.15 a
50% ADFE-addition41.0 ± 0.61 c8.20 ± 0.12 c0.11 ± 0.01 a7.17 ± 0.98 a
70% ADFE-addition44.2 ± 3.48 c8.83 ± 0.69 c0.13 ± 0.01 a7.09 ± 0.80 a
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Raeisossadati, M.; Bumandalai, O.; Moheimani, N.R. Can Anaerobically Digested Food Effluent Support Arthrospira platensis Cultivation in Open Ponds? Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 3115. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063115

AMA Style

Raeisossadati M, Bumandalai O, Moheimani NR. Can Anaerobically Digested Food Effluent Support Arthrospira platensis Cultivation in Open Ponds? Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(6):3115. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063115

Chicago/Turabian Style

Raeisossadati, Mohammadjavad, Odgerel Bumandalai, and Navid Reza Moheimani. 2025. "Can Anaerobically Digested Food Effluent Support Arthrospira platensis Cultivation in Open Ponds?" Applied Sciences 15, no. 6: 3115. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063115

APA Style

Raeisossadati, M., Bumandalai, O., & Moheimani, N. R. (2025). Can Anaerobically Digested Food Effluent Support Arthrospira platensis Cultivation in Open Ponds? Applied Sciences, 15(6), 3115. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063115

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