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Article

Characterization of Dietary Constituents, Phytochemicals, and Antioxidant Capacity of Carpobrotus edulis Fruit: Potential Application in Nutrition

by
Carlota R. Marques
1,
Carla Sousa
1,2,
Carla Moutinho
1,2,3,
Carla Matos
1,2,3 and
Ana Ferreira Vinha
1,2,*
1
Faculty of Health Sciences, University Fernando Pessoa, Rua Carlos da Maia, 296, 4200-150 Porto, Portugal
2
LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
3
FP-I3ID, FP-BHS, GIT-LoSa, University Fernando Pessoa, Praça 9 de Abril, 349, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5599; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105599
Submission received: 5 March 2025 / Revised: 13 May 2025 / Accepted: 14 May 2025 / Published: 16 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Phytochemistry and Its Applications)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Carpobrotus edulis (chorão-da-praia) is an edible and medicinal plant native to South Africa, currently distributed worldwide. Due to the urge for novel foods, invasive species can be considered valuable food supplies to accomplish the current goals of the 2030 Agenda. In this study, C. edulis fruits harvested in northern Portugal’s Atlantic coast were evaluated for proximate analysis (AOAC methods), mineral contents (ICP-MS), and fatty acid composition (GC-FID). Total phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant activity (DPPH and FRAP assays) were carried out by colorimetric methods. The fruits exhibited high amounts of carbohydrates (60.5%), ash (10.9%), and total crude protein (22.8%). A low content of total fat (4.5%) was observed. Linoleic acid (C18:2n6c) was the predominant unsaturated fatty acid (52.08%) among the 11 identified fatty acids. The highest amounts of total phenolics (311.7 mg GAE/g) and flavonoid (50.43 mg CE/g) contents were observed in hydroalcoholic fruit extracts. The high concentration of bioactive compounds in the C. edulis fig is directly reflected in its antioxidant properties, enhancing the usefulness of this invasive species in food and pharmaceutical industries.

1. Introduction

Carpobrotus edulis (L.) is a native species of South Africa that grows along the coast of most of the Mediterranean region and other parts of the world. The high proliferation of this invasive plant allows it to be found on sea cliffs, sand dunes, and coastal rocks, and, therefore, it restricts the expansion of native species [1,2]. In consideration of the above-mentioned, invasive plants have gained popularity, not just regarding their ecological management but for their value as an alternative food and/or source of bioactive compounds, enabling a sustainable economy. Currently, this plant is found on all continents, whether for ornamental purposes or for soil stability/support; however, it is an aggressive competitor against the local flora, able to influence the geochemical processes and the physicochemical characteristics of soil.
According to the FAO’s International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, the sustainable use and equitable distribution of natural resources are primary concern for humanity.
C. edulis is widely recognized as a culinary and medicinal plant [3,4]. This species has traditionally been regarded as an edible plant [5], consumed either raw or as processed food, like jams and jellies. Also, its leaves are used as a vegetable, and its sweet and peppery fruits are also consumed. Other applications of C. edulis have been described, such as natural additives (to add flavor) or as food preservatives [3,6]. Also, several studies have shown that C. edulis possesses various bioactive compounds that perform a range of biological functions, including antioxidant, enzymatic inhibition [7], antibacterial and antifungal [8,9], antiproliferative [10], anti-HIV [11], and neuroprotective properties [12]. Flavonoids like catechin, epicatechin, rutin, and luteolin and phenolic acids such as chlorogenic and sinapic acids are the most common phytoconstituents described in this species, followed by procyanidins, coumarins, terpenoids (amyrin, oleanolic acid, and uvaol), and alkaloids [2,13]. These compounds have great importance in the food industry, such as vanillin, a flavoring with relevant bioactive properties (antioxidant, antimicrobial, and neuroprotective) [7]; uvaol, which has antitumoral activities that can enhance its use as a nutraceutical [14]; tannins, thanks to their antiseptic, antibacterial, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, which make them suitable for use as nutraceuticals and as food preservatives [15]; and procyanidins, which can be used as natural food dyes, being at the same time intestinal epithelial cell protectors, among other important bioactivities [16]. In addition to these examples, it should be noted that many of these compounds are tyrosinase inhibitors, which makes them have great potential in industrial applications, thanks to their ability to prevent food enzymatic browning, thus avoiding nutritional and economic losses during the storage period [7].
As such, the study of the potential applications of this plant in the food industry, particularly in the composition of supplements, is of great relevance. The leaves of C. edulis have been the subject of more studies compared to the fruits. In this context, the aim of this study was to investigate the proximate composition, as well as the fatty acid profile, mineral content, phenolic and flavonoid concentration, and antioxidant properties of C. edulis fruits, also named Hottentot figs, grown on the west coast of northern Portugal.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Material and Sample Preparation

Carpobrotus edulis fruits were harvested in the summer (July) of 2023 on the west coast of northern Portugal (Granja, Miramar, and Espinho beaches). Fruits were hand-picked and kept at −80 °C in sample containers before lyophilization (Telstar Cryodos-80 Terrassa, Barcelona, Spain). After, the dried fruits were pulverized in a mill (Grindomix GM 200, Rech, Germany). Proximate and phytochemical analyses were performed on the powdered materials. All determinations were performed in triplicate. The analyses were carried out immediately after sample preparation, without a precise time. All chemicals and reagents used were of analytical grade.

2.2. Proximate Analysis

A Scaltec type SMO01 infrared balance (Scaltec Instruments, Heiligenstadt, Germany) was used to assess the moisture content of the freshly collected C. edulis fruits. AOAC protocols [17] were followed to quantify ashes (obtained by incineration at 500 °C), lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. The Soxhlet and Kjeldahl techniques were used to estimate total lipids and crude protein, respectively. The total carbohydrate content was determined by difference. The results are displayed in grams per 100 grams of dry weight (dw). The energy value was obtained using specific Atwater factors for fruits [(14.1 × % crude proteins) + (35 × % total fats) + (15.1 × % total carbohydrates)] [18].

2.3. Mineral Composition Analysis

Mineral composition (isotopes Li, 9Be, 11B, 27Al, 48Ti, 51V, 52Cr, 55Mn, 59Co, 60Ni, 65Cu, 66Zn, 75As, 82Se, 85Rb, 88Sr, 90Zr, 98Mo, 111Cd, 118Sn, 121S, 133Cs, 137Ba, 182W, 208Pb, and 209Bi) was determined using procedures previously described by Vinha et al. [19]. Summarily, ~250 mg of sample was digested using an MLS-1200 Mega microwave with an HPR-1000/10 S rotor (Milestone, Sorisole, Italy) using a solution of 65% nitric acid (HNO3) and 30% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). After digestion, 25 mL of ultrapure water was diluted with the resulting solution. The macro- and trace element contents were measured using a Perkin Elmer 3100 flame (air–acetylene) atomic absorption spectrometer from Überlingen, Germany. Calibration standards were created by diluting standard stock solutions of Ca, Na, Mg, Fe, or K to 1000 mg/L concentrations. Elemental analysis was achieved using an ICP-MS iCAP™ Q (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Bremen, Germany). A 10 mg/L PlasmaCAL SCP-33-MS (SCP Science, Baie-d’Urfé, QC, Canada) commercial multi-element standard solution was used to calibrate standards in the 0.5–300 µg/L concentration range. Internal standards of 100 µg/L were obtained by diluting the AccuTrace™ ICP-MS-200.8-IS-1 (AccuStandard®, New Haven, CT, USA) solution with a concentration of 100 mg/L in Sc, Y, In, Tb, and Bi. All measurements were carried out in triplicate, and results were based on dry weight (dw).

2.4. Determination of Fatty Acid (FA) Content

ISO 12966-2:2017 [20] and a gas chromatograph with flame ionization detector (GC-FID) were used to determine the fatty acid methyl ester profiles. These methyl esters were identified by comparing them with a standard mixture (FAME 37, Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA). A GC-2010 Plus gas chromatograph (Shimadzu, Tokyo, Japan) was used to separate the compounds following the procedure of Nunes et al. [21], with minor alterations. An automatic sampler, a split/splitless automatic injector (AOC-20i Shimadzu, Tokyo, Japan), a Varian CP-Sil 88 (Middelburg, The Netherlands) silica capillary column (50.0 m × 0.25 mm internal diameter and 0.20 µm film thickness), and a flame ionization detector (Shimadzu) were also necessary to quantify the FAs. The conditions used for chromatographic analysis were as follows: injecting 1.0 µL of solution, helium as a carrier gas at 3.0 mL/min, 120 °C for 5 min, 2 °C/min at 160 °C for 15 min, and 2 °C/min at 220 °C for 10 min. The FA methyl ester contents were calculated by relative peak areas and presented as a % of the total FA.

2.5. Phytochemical Content and Antioxidant Activity

2.5.1. Extract Preparation

To prepare the solid–liquid extraction, 3 solvents were used: (i) ethanol, (ii) distilled water, and (iii) a 50:50 (v/v) hydroalcoholic solution. Briefly, about 1 g of fruit was added to 50 mL of each solvent, and this mixture was stirred at 40 °C for an hour, following the procedure previously established by Costa et al. [22]. The final extracts were used to analyze bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity (DPPH and FRAP). All measurements were performed in triplicate.

2.5.2. Total Phenolic Content

The Folin–Ciocalteu method was used for the determination of total phenolic content (TPC) following the analytical procedure described by Vinha et al. [23]. A mixture consisting of 30 µL of each extract, 120 µL of an aqueous Na2CO3 solution (7.5% m/v), and 150 µL of Folin–Ciocalteu reagent (1:10) was incubated, in the absence of light, at 45 °C for 15 min, followed by another 30 min at room temperature. The absorbance was read at 765 nm using a Synergy HT microplate reader (Bio-Tek Instruments, Inc., Winooski, VT, USA). The calibration curve method, with gallic acid (GAE) as the standard (5–150 mg/L; R2 = 0.9990), was used to determine the TPC, presenting the latter content as mg GAE equivalents/g dw.

2.5.3. Total Flavonoid Content

The quantification of total flavonoid content (TFC) was performed by a colorimetric method that has already been published [22]. The procedure followed consists of adding 1 mL of each extract with 5% NaNO2 (300 µL) and distilled H2O (4 mL) and letting the mixture combine for 5 min at room temperature. Then, 300 µL of 10% AlCl3 was added, and, after 1 min, 2 mL of NaHO 1 M and 2.4 mL of distilled water. A standard curve (2.5–500 mg/L of catechin (CE), R2 = 0.9994) was drawn, and TFC concentrations were obtained as mg EC equivalents/g dw. Absorbance (510 nm) was measured with a Synergy HT microplate reader (BioTek Instruments, Inc., Winooski, VT, USA).

2.5.4. Antioxidant Activity

Antioxidant activity was determined by DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) methods [23], with the results presented as a percentage (%) of activity. The DPPH radical scavenging assay was carried out using the following method: the DPPH• solution (270 µL, 6.1 × 10−5 M) was added to 30 µL of the Trolox standard (562 mg/L), blank or extracts. A Synergy HT microplate reader (Biotek Instruments, Inc., Winooski, VT, USA) was utilized to measure the concentration of the DPPH• radical at 525 nm every 10 min.
The FRAP method procedure consisted of leaving the mixture of 35 μL of ferrous sulfate standard (5–700 μmol), blank or extracts, and the FRAP reagent (265 μL, 0.3 M acetate buffer, 10 mM TPTZ solution, and 20 mM FeCl3) incubating at 37 °C for 30 min. FeSO4 standard solutions were used to draw an analytical curve (R2 = 0.9989). A Synergy HT microplate reader (BioTek Instruments, Inc., Winooski, VT, USA) was used to measure the absorbances (595 nm) of the obtained solutions.

2.6. Statistical Treatment

IBM SPSS Statistics (version 26 for Windows, IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) was utilized to statistically analyze the attained results. The evaluation of substantial differences between the C. edulis fruit extracts was performed with a one-way ANOVA. Then, to establish paired comparisons between means, with a significance level of 5% (p ≤ 0.05), Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD) was used.

3. Results

3.1. Nutritional Composition

Fruits provide a crucial function in maintaining a well-balanced diet, supplying the human body with vital components, including macro- and micronutrients. The nutritional composition of C. edulis fruits is presented in Table 1.
The main nutrients of C. edulis fruits are listed in Table 1. High protein and ash contents were observed.

3.2. Mineral Composition

In general, fruit represents an important source of minerals. Given the high ash content in our sample, an assessment of trace and ultratrace mineral concentrations was carried out (Table 2).
The predominant macro-elements in C. edulis fruits were Ca, Mg, and K. Regarding essential trace minerals, considerable amounts of Fe and Zn were observed.

3.3. Fatty Acids Profile

The percentage of fatty acids in the extracted oils from C. edulis was evaluated by GC-FID, and the results are presented in Table 3.
Our investigation discovered 11 fatty acids, with α-linoleic being the most abundant essential fatty acid in C. edulis fruits.

3.4. Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Activity

Table 4 shows the total phenolic (TPC) and total flavonoid (TFC) contents and the antioxidant capacity of the C. edulis fruit extracts.
According to the results obtained (Table 4), the highest total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) were observed in the hydroalcoholic C. edulis fruit extracts. Also, the hydroalcoholic extracts presented the strongest antioxidant activity. The aqueous extract was the one with the lowest extraction capacity, observing the lowest levels of phenolics and total flavonoids, as well as antioxidant activity.

4. Discussion

Regarding the results presented in Table 1, C. edulis fruits may be considered a high-quality source of ashes (10.9%) and crude protein (22.8%), with low fat content (4.5%). Carbohydrates were found to be the fruit’s primary component, accounting for 60.5%. These results are consistent with prior published investigations. For instance, Broomhead et al. [24] described similar contents of ashes (10.1%), crude protein (23.5%), and total carbohydrates (64.4%) in C. edulis fruits collected in South Africa. Akinyede et al. [3] also described identical values for moisture (ranging between 77.6% and 90.3%), crude protein (from 8.1% to 26.0%), and carbohydrate (between 58.8% and 70.3%) contents in C. edulis fruits. The energy value of our sample was 332.5 kcal/100 g. Similar values were reported in five Carpobrotus species fruits, ranging from 296.4 to 322.7 kcal/100 g for C. acinaciformis and C. edulis subsp. edulis, respectively [24]. However, our findings contradicted those stated by Neves et al. [8], who reported lower contents of protein (4.67%) and higher contents of ashes (22.0%) and carbohydrates (70.2%) in C. edulis fruits collected in southern and western regions of Portugal. The observed variations may be due to the different edaphoclimatic conditions (temperature, sun exposure, and soil composition) of Portugal’s southern and western areas. Moreover, non-protein nitrogenous compounds, such as alkaloids, are well documented in C. edulis plant parts, which may cause an overestimation of the protein content.
From a nutritional point of view, this fig stands out for its high protein content. Currently, protein supplementation is sought after by athletes, young adults, teenagers, and even elderly people [25,26]. These individuals have in common the desire to increase or maintain muscle mass and physical performance, combining physical activity with increased protein consumption. However, body composition and physical performance are influenced by the essential amino acid profile [27]. Protein supplements come in different forms (powders, gummies, bars, yogurts, and drink shakes) [25], but some of these have irregularities, such as a lower protein content than that stated on the label [28]. Although vegetable protein does not contain all the essential amino acids, the appropriate combination of different protein sources can overcome this limitation. This source of protein has the advantage of containing less saturated fat than protein of animal origin, and existing studies also posit that there is higher anabolic metabolism from the latter [25,27]. Protein supplements have been shown to have positive effects on cardiovascular health by reducing blood pressure and total cholesterol as well as improving the glycemic index. However, excessive consumption by individuals who are at greater risk of developing kidney disease, namely developing kidney stones and damaging the tubules, can lead to hyperfiltration and increased urinary calcium excretion [25].
Overall, our results suggest that C. edulis fruits could positively support human nutritional needs through their consumption as a food supplement due to the numerous amounts of essential nutrients when compared to other fruits like oranges, apples, and grapes.
Regarding macro-elements, Ca was the most significant mineral (12.44 mg/g), followed by Mg (2.98 mg/g) and K (1.24 mg/g), respectively. Plants often contain Ca concentrations of 5 to 10 mg/g and Mg values between 1 and 5 mg/g in dry mass [29]. Our results were significantly higher compared to those found in African fruits (Ca ~0.012 mg/g) [24] and in all aerial parts of C. edulis collected during summer in the south of Portugal (Ca ~0.027 mg/g) [30]. These differences may be due to several processes that influence Ca absorption, including soil mineralization (Ca, Mg, and K concentrations) and soil acidification (pH oscillation) [31]. Potassium (K), despite being the macro-element with the lowest concentration, is vital as part of the daily diet, as it is not produced by the body. According to the World Health Organization [32], the minimum daily intake of K is 3.5 g for adults. C. edulis fruits prove to be a substantial food supply of K, being a rich dietary source of this mineral, with beneficial effects in the prevention of diabetes [33]. Regarding non-essential and/or toxic trace elements, Sr (20.12 μg/g), Rb (14.20 μg/g), and Al (10.4 μg/g) were the most significant ones. Some metals have been used in medicinal chemistry, acting as therapeutic agents when in limited concentrations/doses. Also, small amounts of Sn (101 ng/g), Zr (24.39 ng/g), and Li (11.2 ng/g) were found in C. edulis fruits. Lithium (Li) provided in low and controlled doses is effective as an adjuvant in depressive diseases, exhibiting anti-suicidal effects [34]. Inorganic compounds of Sn can cause gastrointestinal and hematological effects, as well as kidney and liver damage. However, there are few reports as to the genotoxicity of Sn compounds in the literature. Likewise, limited animal research has not clarified the potential toxicity of inorganic Sn [35]. Similarly, zirconium (Zr) presents low toxicity. Although some zirconium compounds can be irritating, especially in their soluble forms, the metal itself is not poisonous [36]. As a result, it is possible to assume that the non-essential mineral profile found in C. edulis fruit constitutes no risk to public health.
Despite these variations in mineral composition, our qualitative profile was identical to that described by Broomhead et al. [24]. In general, the mineral composition of C. edulis fruits can be considered high, especially since minerals are related to ash contents. In truth, the amount of ash in C. edulis fruit is comparable to that in most vegetables and can vary between 5 and 10 g/100 g [37], including tomatoes (7.1 g/100 g), potatoes (10.4 g/100 g), and spinach (17.3–22.3 g/100 g) [38].
All minerals are important for good health, and their consumption must meet the body’s needs. When they are not supplied in adequate quantities, their deficiencies give rise to symptoms that may be more or less specific. Food supplementation of minerals can correct their deficiency in quantity and bioavailability [39]. According to the results of this work, the Hottentot fig is rich in minerals, with very important functions in the human body. Among all macrominerals, calcium is indispensable for bone formation, the regulation of muscle contraction, the transmission of nerve impulses, blood clotting, and hormone secretion; magnesium is essential for nerve, muscle, and bone functions; and potassium is necessary for basic cellular function, namely for maintaining intracellular volume [40,41,42].
The trace minerals found in greater quantity in this fruit are necessary for the function of several metalloenzymes (Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu); metabolic processes such as oxygen transport, DNA and erythrocyte synthesis, and electron transport (Fe); immune response (Fe, Cu, and Zn); antioxidant defense; and cardiac function and iron absorption (Cu), among others [40,41]. This study provides accurate data related to the Ca, Mg, K, Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu content in C. edulis fruits. These results may be useful for future studies to characterize and to enhance C. edulis species in future applications whilst focusing on a sustainable economy.
Although there are already some studies on the nutritional profile in different organs of C. edulis [3,8,12,37], the characterization of fatty acids in the fruit is relatively unclear. As a result, the fatty acid composition of C. edulis dried fruits was investigated in this study to ensure that their medicinal capabilities and health advantages are fully utilized.
Regarding the fatty acid profile of C. edulis, there is currently very little information available in the literature. Analyzing Table 3, the α-linoleic acid (52.08%), oleic acid (17.51%), and palmitic acid (12.41%) were the major compounds observed, which is consistent with the results obtained for C. edulis leaves collected in southern Portugal [43]. Also, our findings are similar to those provided by Neves et al. [8] with minor differences. For instance, these authors identified undecanoic acid (C11:0) in the flowers and fruits of C. edulis (0.19 and 0.18%, respectively). Also, slightly lower contents of α-linoleic acid (51.33%) and oleic acid (16.15%) were described in C. edulis fruits studied by Neves et al. [8]. Linoleic acid has been linked to a lower risk of cardiovascular disease, although its possible impact on inflammation is still a concern [44]. Thus, fruits of C. edulis can be presented as rich in linoleic acid.
The presence of essential fatty acids adds relevance to C. edulis fruit consumption. For instance, α-linolenic acid (ALA) is a precursor for the metabolism of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which are essential components of brain cells and support optimal nervous system function. Our sample exhibited higher levels of α-linolenic acid than fruits analyzed by Neves et al. [8], specifically 2.10% and 1.74%, respectively. Lower amounts of ALA have been recorded in other commonly consumed fruits, including apples (0.2%), cranberries (0.3%), bananas (0.5%), and strawberries (1.1%) [45]. In addition to its cardio- and neuroprotective effects, ALA is characterized by antioxidant, antitumor, and anti-osteoporotic properties, protecting against the development of chronic diseases. As such, it is a good candidate as a nutraceutical, and is used in functional foods in some countries [46,47].
Regarding the therapeutical effects of oleic and palmitic acids [48], there are studies with contradictory results, so the benefits of their supplementation are not unanimous. Oleic acid is cardiovascular-protective, oxidative-stress-preventative [49], and an inhibitor of fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis [50], and it also has neuroprotective and neuronal growth-stimulating activity; however, at high levels it can inhibit neurogenesis [51,52]. Although palmitic acid performs essential functions in the body, if there is no strict homeostatic control of its concentration, it can have negative effects on health, such as dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, and increased inflammation [53]. However, palmitic acid has demonstrated bioactivity by showing oxidative stress prevention and antibacterial, anti-HIV-1, and anti-HSV activities [49,54,55]. It is important to note that alterations in lipid metabolism and brain lipid levels may favor Alzheimer’s disease and cognitive decline. As such, lipid supplementation, associated with essential coenzymes for fatty acid synthesis and oxidation reactions, may have ameliorative effects [52].
The centesimal analysis of fruits is unquestionably significant in assessing their nutritional value and minimizing food insecurity. However, fruits also include bioactive compounds like vitamins and polyphenols [22], recognized for improving general health. Several pharmacological activities of C. edulis are described, including antiproliferative, neurological [43], antimicrobial [56], and antioxidant [57] activities, among others. Thus, the factors affecting the effective extraction of polyphenols from raw materials are critical for assessing their biological attributes. Taking these issues into consideration, our study employed three non-toxic solvents to evaluate total phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant activity (Table 4).
Many researchers have highlighted the importance of extract optimization conditions for increasing yields. Recently, Laloo et al. [57] examined how solvent, pH, extraction time, and temperature affect the extraction of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity from C. edulis leaves. According to the authors, methanol extraction produced larger yields, with higher contents of total phenolics and greater antioxidant activity. Mudimba and Nguta used hexane, ethanol, acetone, and water to extract bioactive compounds from C. edulis leaves. Neves et al. [8] studied water–ethanol (1:1) extracts of leaves, flowers, and fruits of C. edulis. The choice of solvent is one of the most important aspects of any chemical process, influencing the overall safety, environmental effect, and economic impact. In the present investigation, and for the first time, only green and sustainable solvents (water, ethanol, and a water–ethanol solution) were used to investigate the chemical composition of C. edulis fruits. According to the results presented in Table 4, the C. edulis fruit hydroalcoholic extracts exhibited higher TPC (311.7 mg GAE/g) and TFC (50.43 GAE mg CE/g) than the ethanolic (TPC: 252.3 mg GAE/g; TFC: 36.27 mg CE/g) and aqueous (TPC: 156.7 mg GAE/g; TFC: 26.75 mg CE/g) extracts. Similar TPCs were reported in fruit extracts of C. edulis harvested in three locations in southern Portugal using an aqueous acetone (80%; 1:40, w/v) solvent mixture [30], while a considerably lower value was attained in an aqueous ethanolic extract of C. edulis fruits collected on the western shores of Portugal [8]. In contrast, a similar study conducted on the peel and flesh of C. edulis fruit indicated an identical TPC in peels (272.82 mg GAE/g) but a lower TFC (1.58 mg CE/g), with the highest values from the ethanol solvent only in comparison to water and acetone solvents [7]. Overall, no single solvent can completely extract the numerous phytochemicals due to their vastly different chemical characteristics. Thus, in recent years, the number of studies that used green extraction solvents has expanded dramatically, as it addresses one of the primary goals of the 2030 Agenda [23,58,59]. Furthermore, beyond the efficiency of the solvent, the amount of bioactive compounds in plants varies based on the plant organ, soil composition, and weather conditions, among other things [3]. For instance, Pereira et al. [30] observed that C. edulis aerial parts collected during the summer exhibited higher amounts of phenolics in comparison to other portions of the species, regardless of the type of solvent used for extraction. Adverse environmental factors, such as extreme temperatures (cold and heat), are an example of abiotic factors that negatively affect the physiology as well as the primary and secondary metabolism of plants. Thus, according to Pereira et al. [30], higher total phenolic values were noted in spring (>200 mg GAE/g extract DW) and summer (~312 mg GAE/g), while the lowest values were registered in winter (213–254 mg GAE/g). Despite the observed differences, the reported levels were lower than those observed in this study, using hydroalcoholic and ethanolic extracts from samples collected in summer (311.7 and 252.3 mg GAE/g). On the other hand, the results presented by Pereira et al. [30] were based on aqueous acetone extracts of aerial parts (leaves, shoots, and flowers), suggesting that our results would be significantly superior if we had included all remaining parts, with the advantage of using non-toxic solvents.
Antioxidant activity was observed as being directly proportional to the polyphenolic contents and solvent nature. The fruits of C. edulis were found to be globally effective as antioxidant agents, since all extracts presented high values of antioxidant activity in both assays (DPPH• and FRAP). Our results showed higher antioxidant activity in hydroalcoholic extracts (95.89 and 47.27% for DPPH and FRAP, respectively), followed by the ethanolic (76.50 and 20.30% for DPPH and FRAP, respectively) and aqueous extracts (21.87 and 19.11% for DPPH• and FRAP, respectively). Similar to what was reported above, the antioxidant activity is directly related to the content of bioactive compounds, since the hydroalcoholic extracts presented higher contents of total phenolics (311.7 mg GAE/g) and total flavonoids (50.43 mg CE/G), while the aqueous extracts presented the lowest values (156.7 mg GAE/g and 26.75 mg CE/g, respectively). The differences between the results obtained and the literature reports on the antioxidant activity of C. edulis are most likely due to the use of different parts of the plant, the use of different solvents/extraction methods, and/or the local edaphic and climatic factors of the sampling origin, not to mention environmental variations, all of which can influence the antioxidant profile of natural extracts. Different results were described from other authors. For instance, Hafsa et al. [60] described 20–50% higher activity in water and hydroalcoholic C. edulis leaf extracts compared to DPPH•. Rocha et al. [12] described antioxidant activity only at >1 mg/mL (in methanol and ethyl acetate C. edulis leaf extracts).
Based on their bioactive properties (antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anticancer, and cardioprotective), natural availability, and biocompatibility, plant-based polyphenols are already used in functional foods, helping to prevent some diseases, among other benefits for human health. However, many polyphenols have low oral bioavailability, which limits their application in nutraceuticals. This problem can be solved with nanocarriers, which are used to encapsulate, protect, and improve the bioavailability of these compounds [61]. The results of this work, combined with the non-significant toxicity of this invader fruit, suggest that it has potential for applications in the food industry, namely in nutraceuticals or supplements [7,24].

5. Conclusions

This study aimed to characterize the nutritional constituents, phytochemicals, and antioxidant capacity of Carpobrotus edulis fruits, evaluating their potential as a source of bioactive compounds for nutritional and biotechnological applications. The results indicated high levels of carbohydrates, proteins, essential minerals, and phenolic compounds, as well as significant antioxidant activity, particularly in the hydroalcoholic extracts.
The predominance of α-linolenic acid and the presence of linoleic acid, among others, underscore the relevance of these fruits for human health, contributing to cardiovascular disease prevention and nervous system support. Additionally, the high phenolic and flavonoid contents affirm their potential as a sustainable source of natural antioxidants.
Future perspectives include investigating the bioavailability and in vivo bioactivity of the identified compounds, along with exploring the fruits’ integration into functional food and nutraceutical matrices. Additional studies could also address the effects of controlled cultivation and varying edaphoclimatic conditions on fruit composition.
In summary, C. edulis fruits present a valuable opportunity for sustainable economic development, aligning with global goals of utilizing invasive species for beneficial purposes. This work contributes to the expanding evidence base on the use of halophyte plants in nutrition and human health.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.F.V. and C.S.; methodology, A.F.V. and C.M. (Carla Moutinho); investigation, C.R.M. and A.F.V.; resources, A.F.V.; writing—original draft preparation, C.R.M. and A.F.V.; writing—review and editing, C.S., C.M. (Carla Moutinho), C.M. (Carla Matos) and A.F.V.; visualization, C.M. (Carla Matos); supervision, A.F.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors want to acknowledge support and help from the PT national funds (FCT/MECI, Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia and Ministério da Educação, Ciência e Inovação) through the project UID/50006—Laboratório Associado para a Química Verde—Tecnologias e Processos Limpos.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Table 1. Nutritional composition (g/100 g dw) and energy value (kcal) of C. edulis fruits.
Table 1. Nutritional composition (g/100 g dw) and energy value (kcal) of C. edulis fruits.
Nutritional CompositionFruits *
Moisture3.7 ± 0.02
Ash10.9 ± 0.09
Crude Protein22.8 ± 0.10
Total Fat4.5 ± 0.15
Total Carbohydrates60.5 ± 0.20
Energy (kcal)332.5 ± 0.22
* Mean ± SD (standard deviation) of three replicates (n = 3).
Table 2. Total content of essential, non-essential, and toxic trace elements of C. edulis fruits.
Table 2. Total content of essential, non-essential, and toxic trace elements of C. edulis fruits.
Essential Trace Minerals
Fe (µg/g)32.20 ± 0.42
Cu (µg/g)5.89 ± 0.17
Zn (µg/g)25.06 ± 0.41
Mn (µg/g)7.05 ± 0.36
Mo (µg/g)n.d.
Co (ng/g)<LoD
Cr (ng/g)n.d.
Se (µg/g)0.016 ± 0.010
Non-essential and toxic trace elements
Al (µg/g)10.4 ± 2.0
As (ng/g)12.8 ± 5.1
B (µg/g)<LoD
Ba (ng/g)n.d.
Be (ng/g)<LoD
Bi (ng/g)n.d.
Cd (ng/g)0.55 ± 0.06
Cs (ng/g)<LoD
Li (ng/g)11.2 ± 3.1
Ni (µg/g)n.d.
Pb (ng/g)<LoD
Rb (µg/g)14.20 ± 0.29
Sb (µg/g)n.d.
Sn (ng/g)101 ± 14
Sr (µg/g)20.12 ± 0.11
Te (µg/g)<LoD
Ti (µg/g)n.d.
V (µg/g)<LoD
W (µg/g)<LoD
Zr (ng/g)24.39 ± 1.2
Macro-elements
Ca (mg/g)12.44 ± 0.89
K (mg/g)1.24 ± 0.40
Mg (mg/g)2.98 ± 0.25
Na (µg/g)<LoD
Results expressed in µg/g (Fe, B, Al, Ti, V, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Rb, Sr, Mo, Te, and Na), ng/g (Li, Be, Cr, Co, As, Zr, Cd, Sn, Cs, Ba, Bi, W, and Pb), and mg/g (K, Ca, and Mg) of dw. Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). LoD—Level of Detection. n.d.—Not Detected.
Table 3. Fatty acid profiles (%) in C. edulis fruits.
Table 3. Fatty acid profiles (%) in C. edulis fruits.
Fatty Acids% of Total FA
UndecanoicC11:0n.d.
LauricC12:00.19 ± 0.003
MyristicC14:00.66 ± 0.004
PalmiticC16:012.41 ± 0.012
PalmitoleicC16:10.12 ± 0.005
HeptadecanoicC17:0n.d.
StearicC18:02.96 ± 0.008
OleicC18:1n9c17.51 ± 0.030
Linoleic 1C18:2n6c 152.08 ± 0.015
ArachidicC20:01.71 ± 0.006
α-Linolenic 1C18:3n3 12.10 ± 0.002
cis-11-EicosanoicC20:1n90.49 ± 0.001
BehenicC22:02.54 ± 0.003
TricosanoicC23:0n.d.
LignocericC24:0n.d.
n6/n3 24.80 ± 0.043
n9/n6 0.346 ± 0.117
ΣSFA 20.47 ± 0.017
ΣMUFA 18.12 ± 0.030
ΣPUFA 54.18 ± 0.015
Values are presented as a relative % of total FA. The results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). The 0 sum of saturated FA ΣSFA = C12:0 + C14:0 + C16:0 + C18:0 + C22:0. The sum of monounsaturated FA ΣMUFA = C16:1 + C18:1n9c + C20:1n9. The sum of polyunsaturated FA ΣPUFA = C18:2n6c + C18:3n3. 1 Essential fatty acids. n.d.—not detected.
Table 4. Quantification of bioactive compounds and assessment of antioxidant activity of C. edulis fruit extracts.
Table 4. Quantification of bioactive compounds and assessment of antioxidant activity of C. edulis fruit extracts.
Fruit ExtractsTPC
(mg GAE/g)		TFC
(mg CE/g)		DPPH•
(%)		FRAP
(%)
Ethanolic252.3 ± 3.05 b36.27 ± 0.76 b76.50 ± 4.52 b20.30 ± 0.39 b,c
Aqueous156.7 ± 4.04 c26.75 ± 0.78 c21.87 ± 0.60 c19.11 ± 0.35 c
Hydroalcoholic311.7 ± 3.78 a50.43 ± 2.08 a95.89 ± 0.75 a47.27 ± 0.73 a
Values are presented in dry weight. TPC is reported in mg GAE/g; TFC is reported in mg EC/g; DPPH• and FRAP results reported in % elimination effect as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). The different letters for the same assay and different extracts, which are found in each column, indicate that the results are significantly different according to the ANOVA followed by the Tukey HSD test (p < 0.05).
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Marques, C.R.; Sousa, C.; Moutinho, C.; Matos, C.; Vinha, A.F. Characterization of Dietary Constituents, Phytochemicals, and Antioxidant Capacity of Carpobrotus edulis Fruit: Potential Application in Nutrition. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 5599. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105599

AMA Style

Marques CR, Sousa C, Moutinho C, Matos C, Vinha AF. Characterization of Dietary Constituents, Phytochemicals, and Antioxidant Capacity of Carpobrotus edulis Fruit: Potential Application in Nutrition. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(10):5599. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105599

Chicago/Turabian Style

Marques, Carlota R., Carla Sousa, Carla Moutinho, Carla Matos, and Ana Ferreira Vinha. 2025. "Characterization of Dietary Constituents, Phytochemicals, and Antioxidant Capacity of Carpobrotus edulis Fruit: Potential Application in Nutrition" Applied Sciences 15, no. 10: 5599. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105599

APA Style

Marques, C. R., Sousa, C., Moutinho, C., Matos, C., & Vinha, A. F. (2025). Characterization of Dietary Constituents, Phytochemicals, and Antioxidant Capacity of Carpobrotus edulis Fruit: Potential Application in Nutrition. Applied Sciences, 15(10), 5599. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105599

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