Assessing the Opportunity Offered by Electric Vehicles in Performing Service Trips to End Consumers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Background
2.1. The Service Trips
2.2. Fleet Electrification
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. The Case Study
- The status quo (Service pattern 1), i.e., the delivery and installation services are performed by LCVs with Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs); then, the environmental impacts and the request for parking is calculated;
- Electrification (Service pattern 2), i.e., pushed to the needs to reduce the environmental impacts of commercial vehicles, delivery and installation services are performed by LCVs with electric engines; then, referring to service pattern 1, the distribution tour, the same vehicle with electric propulsion is used; in this case, the energy consumption has been also calculated;
- Electrification and parking space optimization (Service pattern 3), i.e., pushed by the need to optimize the use of LCVs (which should remain stopped during installation) and the space occupied by their parking, delivery and installation are assumed to be de-coupled; delivery is performed by an LCV and after this, an operator via a cargo e-bike reaches the place and proceeds with the installation. The further evolution of such a service could consider the opportunity to collect the packaging and operate the reverse logistics with significant benefits for recycling and waste collection.
3.2. Routing and Scheduling
- i, j are the indexes for end consumers;
- v is the index for LCVs;
- b is the index for cargo e-bikes;
- d is the index for depots;
- C is the set of end consumers;
- D1 is the set of depots for service patterns 1 and 2;
- D2 is set of depots for service pattern 3;
- U1 is the union between set C and set D1 (U1 = C ∪ D1);
- U2 is the union between set C and set D2 (U2 = C ∪ D2);
- V is the set of vehicles;
- B is the set of cargo e-bikes;
- Bd is the subset of cargo e-bikes belonging to depot d;
- cijv is the cost to move from i to j by vehicle v (cijv = TTijv + STjv);
- TTijv is the travel time to move from i to j by vehicle v;
- STjv is the service time at node j of vehicle v;
- gijb is the cost to move from i to j via vehicle b (gijb = TTijb + STjb);
- TTijb is the travel time to move from i to j via cargo e-bike b;
- STjb is the service time at node j of vehicle b;
- qj is the quantity to be delivered to customer j;
- pj is the quantity to be picked up from customer j;
- wv is the LCV v’s capacity;
- wb is the cargo e-bike b’s capacity;
- tlim is the threshold value for route duration;
- ℓv is the vehicle v’s range;
- ℓb is the vehicle b’s range;
- ti is the arrival time at customer i;
- [ai, bi] is the time window at customer i;
- xijv, yijv are the problem variables.
3.3. The Estimation of Pollutant Emissions and Energy Consumption
3.4. Scenario Assessment
4. Results
- a service is performed by ICE LCVs,
- a service is performed by electric LCVs,
- a service is performed by combining the use of electric LCVs and cargo e-bikes.
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mechanical | |
Length | 4.1 m |
Width | 2.15 m |
Height | 2.2 m |
Cargo Volume | 19.6 m3 |
Curb weight | 2114 kg |
Frontal Area | 4.26 m2 |
Drag coefficient | 0.3 |
Rolling friction coefficient | 0.013 |
Tire type | 225/65R16 |
ICE | |
Engine Power | 81 kW |
Engine Torque | 330 Nm |
Fuel consumption | 9.8 L/100 km |
CO2 emissions | 256 g/km |
Electric propulsion systems | |
Motor type | SSM—Magnet-less |
Motor Power | 57 kW |
Motor Torque | 225 Nm |
Battery type | NMC |
Battery Energy | 52 kWh |
Cell Type | Lithium-Ion |
Chemistry Cathode | NMC |
Chemistry Anode | Graphite |
Capacity | 63 Ah |
Nominal Voltage | 3.75 V |
Operating voltage | 2.7–4.12 V |
Battery temperature range | −40–65 °C |
Mechanical/Electric Propulsion Systems | |
---|---|
Motor type | Electric |
Weight | 49 kg |
Consumption | 0.009 kWh/km |
Cargo volume | 2 m3 |
Length | 1 m |
Width | 2.5 m |
Service Pattern | Number of Routes | Distance Travelled [km] | Driving Time [h] | Total Service Time [h] |
---|---|---|---|---|
1, 2 | 4 | 255.64 | 9.07 | 33.87 |
3 | 12 | 461.84 | 20.74 | 45.54 |
3 LCVs | 4 | 245.34 | 8.58 | 15.53 |
3 Cargo e-bikes | 8 | 216.50 | 12.16 | 30.01 |
Service Pattern 1 ICE LCV | Service Pattern 2 Electric LCV | Service Pattern 3 Electric LCV + Cargo e-Bike | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Tailpipe Emissions [g] | CO | 0.155 | ||
CO2 | 64,285.00 | |||
NOx | 57.760 | - | - | |
PM | 0.394 | |||
VOC | 8.590 | |||
Energy consumption [kWh] | - | 91.77 | 89.37 * | |
Emissions from electricity production [g] | - | CO2 28,357.00 *** | CO2 27,615.00 *** | |
Requested time for parking [equivalent parking hours] | 49.60 | 49.60 | 31.75 ** |
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Comi, A.; Polimeni, A.; Belcore, O.M.; Cartisano, A.G.; Micari, S.; Napoli, G. Assessing the Opportunity Offered by Electric Vehicles in Performing Service Trips to End Consumers. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4061. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14104061
Comi A, Polimeni A, Belcore OM, Cartisano AG, Micari S, Napoli G. Assessing the Opportunity Offered by Electric Vehicles in Performing Service Trips to End Consumers. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(10):4061. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14104061
Chicago/Turabian StyleComi, Antonio, Antonio Polimeni, Orlando M. Belcore, Antonio G. Cartisano, Salvatore Micari, and Giuseppe Napoli. 2024. "Assessing the Opportunity Offered by Electric Vehicles in Performing Service Trips to End Consumers" Applied Sciences 14, no. 10: 4061. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14104061
APA StyleComi, A., Polimeni, A., Belcore, O. M., Cartisano, A. G., Micari, S., & Napoli, G. (2024). Assessing the Opportunity Offered by Electric Vehicles in Performing Service Trips to End Consumers. Applied Sciences, 14(10), 4061. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14104061