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Foie Gras Production: A Literature Review on the Welfare Implications of Force-Feeding of Ducks
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Laboratory of Morphology, Department of Morphology, Medical Imaging, Orthopaedics, Physiotherapy and Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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Animal Welfare Solutions, 3583 Paal, Belgium
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Nukamel, 6001 SE Weert, The Netherlands
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Laboratory of Livestock Physiology, Department of Biosystems, KU Leuven, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Animals 2026, 16(18), 2838; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16182838
Submission received: 30 July 2026
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Revised: 1 September 2026
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Accepted: 3 September 2026
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Published: 9 September 2026
(This article belongs to the Section Poultry)
Simple Summary
Foie gras production relies on force-feeding (gavage) to induce hepatic steatosis and subsequent liver enlargement in waterfowl. While this practice is central to the industry, it has raised persistent animal welfare concerns. In recent years, public and regulatory scrutiny regarding the ethical implications of intensive animal farming systems has increased. This review synthesises current scientific knowledge on foie gras production, focusing specifically on the behavioural, physiological, and health-related welfare implications of force-feeding in ducks and geese. Evidence concerning physiological stress responses is inconsistent, with some studies reporting no increase in plasma corticosterone levels and other evidence indicating adverse behavioural, pathological or health-related outcomes. Reported injuries include oesophageal lesions, footpad dermatitis and carcass injuries. Force-feeding also produces marked liver enlargement due to fat accumulation, accompanied by changes in liver function. Scientific disagreement concerns whether these changes cause pain or suffering, the severity of the welfare compromise and the validity and interpretation of the indicators used. While alternative production methods that bypass force-feeding are being explored, they remain limited in scale and technological feasibility. This review highlights key research gaps, emphasises the need for objective welfare assessment frameworks, and aims to contribute an evidence-based perspective to the ongoing dialogue surrounding ethical animal production.
Abstract
Foie gras production is based on the force-feeding (gavage) of waterfowl to induce hepatic steatosis and subsequent liver enlargement. This practice has been widely debated due to concerns regarding animal welfare. This review provides a comprehensive overview of foie gras production, with a primary focus on the welfare implications of force-feeding in ducks, while contextualising historical and alternative practices involving geese. Evidence was evaluated across behavioural, physiological, pathological and health-related outcomes, together with procedural, housing and environmental factors. Endocrine findings are mixed, but repeated restraint and tube insertion can cause injuries to the upper digestive tract, while progressive feed administration produces marked liver enlargement, altered hepatic function and increased metabolic heat load. Reduced activity, locomotor impairment, lesions and elevated mortality have also been reported, although study designs and production methods and conditions vary. Alternatives under investigation include spontaneous fattening, microbiome-based interventions, cultivated-cell products and plant-based or processed analogues. Evidence concerning their welfare benefits, product quality, scalability and economic feasibility remains limited. Overall, the accumulated scientific evidence raises significant concerns regarding the welfare of force-fed birds and underscores the need for continued exploration of viable alternative production strategies.
Keywords:
foie gras; force-feeding; duck welfare; hepatic steatosis; animal welfare
