Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic fever | Nairovirus (Bunyavirus) | Eastern Europe, Asia, Middle East, Central Africa, West Africa, South Africa, Madagascar. [9] | Headache, fever, back pain, joint pain, and vomiting. Illness progression to severe bruising, nosebleeds, and uncontrolled bleeding. [10] | Multiple subconjunctival hemorrhages, retinal hemorrhage. [10] | |
Marburg-Virus Disease | Marburg Virus (Filovirus) | Central Africa—Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola; East Africa- Uganda, Kenya; South Africa, Germany, Netherlands, Serbia, United States, Yugoslavia. [9] | Fever, headache, malaise, diarrhea, vomiting. Extreme lethargy, and multiple organ failure as disease progresses without treatment. [11] Orchitis in severe cases. [12] | Acute MVD: Conjunctivitis, iritis, retinitis. [13] Convalescence: iritis, increased intraocular pressure, active unilateral hypertensive uveitis. [13,14] | Marburg viral persistence in aqueous tap during convalescence reported. [13,14] |
Ebola Virus Disease | Ebola virus (Filovirus) | Democratic Republic of the Congo, West Africa—Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, Nigeria, Senegal, Mali; United States, United Kingdom, Italy, Spain. [9] | Fever, vomiting, diarrhea, hypovolemic shock, and multi-organ failure without treatment. [15,16] | Acute EVD: Conjunctivitis, subconjunctival hemorrhage Convalescence: Anterior uveitis, Intermediate uveitis, panuveitis with heterochromia; uveitis complications if not treated; optic neuropathy. [16,17] | Risk of viral persistence in aqueous humor reported during convalescence. [16,17] |
Human Coronavirus | Coronaviridae | SARS-CoV: Southeast Asia, Europe, South Africa. MERS-CoV: Middle East—Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Iran, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Jordan; Europe- Greece, Germany, Italy; Asia; Philippines, Malaysia, China, Thailand; United States, United Kingdom. [9] SARS-CoV-2: 191 countries affected globally to date. [18] | SARS-CoV: Fever, cough, headache, malaise, shortness of breath. [18,19] MERS-CoV: fever, cough, shortness of breath, diarrhea, vomiting [20,21] SARS-CoV-2: Fever, cough, fatigue, headache, shortness of breath, sore throat, loss of taste or smell. [18,22] | SARS-CoV: SARS-CoV RNA seen in tear film during early phase of SARS infection. [23,24] MERS-CoV: No reports of ophthalmic findings to-date SARS-CoV-2: Chemosis and Conjunctivitis reported in COVID-19 infection, SARS-CoV-2 RNA seen in conjunctival swab and Schirmer’s strip. [25,26] Retinal manifestations including hyperreflective lesions reported on OCT, cotton wool spots and microhemorrhages seen. [27,28] | |
Lassa fever | Mammarenavirus (Arenavirus) | West Africa- Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, and Nigeria. [9] | Fever, sore throat, vomiting, malaise. Neurological complications including hearing loss in severe cases. [29,30] | Acute Lassa fever: Conjunctivitis Convalescence: cataract, chorioretinal scarring, retinal fibrosis, and vitreous opacity noticed. Anterior uveitis, iritis. [31,32] | Visual acuity worsened in LHF survivors with ophthalmic manifestations. [32] |
Nipah Virus |
Henipavirus (Paramyxoviridae) | Malaysia, Bangladesh, India, Singapore, Cambodia, Ghana, Indonesia, Madagascar, the Philippines, and Thailand. [9] | Fever, headache, vomiting. Respiratory and neurologic complications including seizures recorded as illness progresses. [33,34] | Neurological associated dysfunctions including pupillary abnormalities, oculomotor palsies, abnormal oculocephalic reflexes, nystagmus, persistent diplopia from cranial nerve VI palsy, and retinal artery occlusion. [35,36] | Ptosis, miosis, and anhidrosis associated with Horner syndrome noticed as late manifestations. [37] |
Rift Valley fever | Phlebovirus (Bunyaviridae) | Sub-Saharan Africa-Egypt, the Gambia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe. [25] | Fever, malaise, back pain, and dizziness. Neurological complications including seizures as disease progresses. [38] | Non-granulomatous anterior uveitis, Macular and paramacular retinitis, retinal hemorrhage, optic disc edema, vasculitis. [39,40]
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Mosquito transmitted diseases | Chikungunya: Alphavirus (Togavirus) Zika and Dengue: Flavivirus | Chikungunya: Sub-Saharan Africa- Tanzania, Kenya; India, Indonesia, Thailand, Brazil, Colombia. [9] Zika: South America, Central America, North America, and the Caribbean. [9] Dengue: Caribbean- Guyana, Grenada, Haiti, Jamaica, Panama; Asia- Bangladesh, Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand; Africa- Ethiopia, Burkina Faso, Eritrea, Somalia. [41] | Chikungunya: fever, headache, joint pain, joint swelling. [25] Zika: Asymptomatic in most cases. Mild symptoms including fever, rash, headache, and joint pain seen in some cases [42]. Dengue: asymptomatic in most cases. Mucousal bleeding, nausea and vomiting in some cases. Multiple organ failure and shock seen as complications if left untreated. [43] | Chikungunya: photophobia, conjunctival injection, retroocular pain, and floaters. Anterior uveitis, optic neuritis, and retinitis. [25] Zika: Conjunctivitis, Uveitis, unilateral acute maculopathy noticed in adults during acute phase. Macular scarring, retinal mottling, chorioretinal atrophy, optic nerve hypoplasia noticed as complications in congenital syndrome. [42] Dengue: Uveitis, Sub-conjunctival hemorrhage, maculopathy. [25] | |