Framework for the Detection, Diagnosis, and Evaluation of Thermal Bridges Using Infrared Thermography and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background and Methodology
2.1. Evolution of Curtain Wall Systems
2.1.1. Mechanically Fixed System
- Stick system is a structure of extruded horizontal and vertical metallic frame members (sticks) whose mullions are long elements generally made of aluminum or cold-rolled steel with coating paint. The materials are cut in the factory and assembled on site. Elastic gaskets are used under pressure plates. This system requires high level of quality control, given that the system is built on site and depends heavily on the equipment and personnel involved in its construction.
- Unitized is the most commonly used type of curtain wall for high-quality finishing. Consisting of a cluster of preassembled glazing panels manufactured in controlled factory conditions, the metallic frame is directly attached to the different glass layers. The whole façade is sealed using elastic gaskets. It is more expensive than the stick system, but is faster and easier to install, with fewer onsite operations. It is a more cost-effective approach due to its better performance and reduced quality control requirements.
- Panelized is similar to the unitized system but consists of prefabricated panels. The panels generally have a store span height and a bay span width. This approach seeks to avoid midspan supports to avoid the problems of deflection.
- Spandrel panel ribbon glazing has long continuous glazed panels that are fixed between spandrel panels connected to the building’s floor slab. They are made of prefabricated metallic, composite panels, or precast concrete units. The glazed panels may be assembled on site with horizontal transoms fixed to spandrel panels. Vertical mullions may be arranged to simplify construction. The glazed parts may be from preassembled units that will be fixed on the bottom and top to the spandrel panels and on the sides to one another. The level of prefabrication and repetitive assembly contributes to achieving high performance and quality control demands.
2.1.2. Structural Glazing
2.2. Thermal Bridges in Curtain Wall Systems
- Linear thermal bridges are discontinuities in the thermal envelope that are found along an imaginary line across the building envelope. They are typically found on balcony connections with the floor slab through the wall, wall edges, floor supports, and windows. The energy losses in a linear thermal bridge are defined as the linear thermal transmittance, ψ [15].
- Point thermal bridges are localized losses detected in a single spot. Examples include fastening elements such as dowels or curtain wall supports and anchors that penetrate the insulating layer. The energy losses in a point thermal bridge are defined as point thermal transmittance, χ.
- Geometrical thermal bridges are found in a change of direction in the building envelope’s surfaces, like a corner, or where there is a local reduction of these surfaces. It can be a linear or punctual thermal bridge [16].
- Structural thermal bridges are discontinuities in the insulation of the building envelope produced by elements used in the assembly or construction. Examples are discontinuities in corner junctions between different building components such as an I-beam that passes through an assembly.
- Systematic thermal bridges are repeated energy losses throughout the length of the façade. This conceptualization is used to facilitate designs of building envelopes as a structure with one-dimensional heat flow, which simplifies the calculation of heat losses. For example, heat losses due to wall ties or joints in masonry.
- Convective thermal bridges are energy losses due to air movements inside the construction—specifically, unintended air movements inside the structure. Possible causes are convections in gaps among components or within the insulation itself. Heat losses may increase due to the direct influence of the outside air through the insulation. Interior air may also filter into the structure, generating ventilation loss. The air stream will cause moisture accumulation in the outer part of the building envelope, resulting in a reduction in the insulation performance. Increasing conductivity or thermal transmittance in the design compensates for connective thermal bridges. They can also be reduced with proper plans and workmanship in the assembly process.
2.3. Methodology
2.3.1. Formulation
2.3.2. Modeling
2.3.3. Survey and Data Management
3. Case Example
3.1. Identify the Type of Curtain Wall
Conduction Heat-Transfer Simulation Model
3.2. Emissivity Data Collection
3.2.1. Adjustments for Non-Contact Temperature Data
3.2.2. Analysis
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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Share and Cite
Ficapal, A.; Mutis, I. Framework for the Detection, Diagnosis, and Evaluation of Thermal Bridges Using Infrared Thermography and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. Buildings 2019, 9, 179. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings9080179
Ficapal A, Mutis I. Framework for the Detection, Diagnosis, and Evaluation of Thermal Bridges Using Infrared Thermography and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. Buildings. 2019; 9(8):179. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings9080179
Chicago/Turabian StyleFicapal, Albert, and Ivan Mutis. 2019. "Framework for the Detection, Diagnosis, and Evaluation of Thermal Bridges Using Infrared Thermography and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles" Buildings 9, no. 8: 179. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings9080179