Analysis of Han Dynasty Red Pottery Eave-End Tile from the Minyue Kingdom Ruins

Abstract

This study investigates a red pottery eave-end tile (Wadang) from the Minyue Kingdom Imperial City (Western Han Dynasty), a World Heritage Site in Fujian. By integrating quantitative petrography, XRD, and Raman spectroscopy, we systematically characterized its microstructure and production technology. Scientific analyses identify the raw material as local feldspathic–quartz clay, evidenced by angular, ill-sorted quartz inclusions with significant distributional heterogeneity. XRD analysis identified a rigid quartz skeleton, while Raman spectroscopy further revealed a hematite-rich surface formed under an oxidizing atmosphere. While typological analysis confirms a mid-Western Han Cloud Pattern style influenced by the Central Plains, the observed microstructural heterogeneity indicates a production mode characterized by high individual craftsmanship but low overall standardization. These findings highlight the Minyue artisans’ adaptive fusion of imperial aesthetics with indigenous manufacturing techniques, providing material evidence for the center–periphery cultural exchange in the Han Empire.

1. Introduction

Ancient ceramic building components, such as eave-end tiles, serve as critical material witnesses to historical construction technologies and cultural exchange, while also presenting practical challenges for heritage conservation engineering. This case study focuses on the red pottery eave-end tiles from the Minyue Kingdom Imperial City, a Western Han Dynasty heritage site in Fujian, to characterize their material properties and inform evidence-based conservation strategies. Located southwest of Chengcun Village, Xingtian Town, Wuyishan, Fujian Province, the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom was one of the political and economic centers of the Minyue Kingdom during the early-to-mid-Western Han Dynasty [1] (Figure 1). It is currently located in Wuyishan City, a World Heritage Site. The Minyue Kingdom had two centers: one in Yecheng, in the lower reaches of the Minjiang River, now Fuzhou, and the other in northwestern Fujian, encompassing the present-day Wuyishan, Shaowu, and Jianyang areas [2,3,4]. Most scholars, based on historical records, believe that Yushan, the younger brother of Minyue King Ying (郢), controlled northwestern Fujian. Consequently, they speculate that the Imperial City was built by Yu Shan (餘善), beginning in the sixth year of Jianyuan (135 BC), when Yushan became King of Dongyue, and ending in the first year of Yuanfeng (110 BC), when he was executed. The Imperial City contains a single architectural structure, dating back to the early Han Dynasty. During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, the capital city was captured and burned by the Han army due to the rebellion of Yu Shan of the Minyue Kingdom [5]. The Han army forcibly relocated the residents inland, resulting in the capital city’s abandonment and the destruction of its walls, leaving behind numerous fire-damaged relics. Modern archaeological excavations have uncovered many rammed-earth foundations, building materials, and other remains destroyed by fire, confirming the historical fact that the capital city was destroyed by war [4,5]. The eave-end tile, which is one of the architectural components, was discovered during later archaeological excavations. Although it was not completely destroyed by fire, it still left behind historical information about the Minyue Kingdom.

As shown in Figure 2, the ruins of the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom contain various types of remains, demonstrating a clear functional zoning pattern. The city area (centered around the city gates and drum tower ruins) formed the Imperial City’s core administrative and public space. The North and East Gates, as important entrances and exits to the city, served as crucial points of communication, material transportation, and military defense, serving as crucial nodes for the Imperial City’s external connections and internal administration [6]. The drum tower ruins, as a landmark architectural site, may have been associated with public affairs such as rituals, timekeeping, and summoning officials, forming a crucial component of the Imperial City’s public space system. Handicraft production areas include the Houshan Kiln Site, the Yuanbaoshan Iron (or Steel) Smelting Workshop Site, and the Huangguashan Iron (or Steel) Smelting Workshop Site. The Han Dynasty was an era characterized by iron-based productivity. The Han Dynasty was an era characterized by advanced metallurgical productivity. Rather than merely utilizing basic iron, Chinese metallurgists during this period (especially around the 2nd century BC) were global pioneers in developing advanced methods for refining pig iron to produce cast iron and early forms of steel. Specifically, they mastered the Chao Gang (炒鋼) technique—analogous to the later European puddling process—which involved decarburizing molten pig iron in an oxygen-rich environment. Furthermore, around 100 BC, they pioneered co-fusion smelting technologies, ingeniously mixing wrought and pig iron to efficiently manufacture high-quality metallic products. From a modern materials science perspective, steel is precisely defined as an iron–carbon alloy with a carbon mass fraction between 0.008% and 2.11%. Because the metals produced by these advanced ancient Chinese techniques accurately achieved these specific carbon proportions, they are scientifically classified as steel rather than generic iron. The numerous iron production tools and weapons unearthed at Chengcun Han Dynasty City reflect that, although Minyue was in the southeastern corner of the country, it had already entered the Iron Age, just like the Central Plains [7]. The development of these advanced smelting and steelmaking industries provided highly durable cast iron tools for agricultural production and superior steel equipment for the military, thus having profound consequences for handicraft production and socio-economic development. For example, archaeological excavations have unearthed large cast iron plows weighing up to 15 kg from these workshop sites. Later archaeological discoveries at the Yuanbaoshan Iron Smelting Workshop Site, as shown in Figure 2, also revealed iron smelting remains, indirectly reflecting the existence and development of iron smelting technology in the Minyue Kingdom. The development of the iron smelting industry not only provided iron tools for agricultural production but also weapons and other equipment for the military, thus having profound consequences for handicraft production and socio-economic development. Pottery making provided the initial thermal foundation and casting molds for iron smelting, while iron smelting provided pottery making with more efficient production tools. Together, they promoted the transformation of productivity in ancient handicrafts. For example, many pottery pieces at that time were stamped with marks such as “Lin,” “Huang,” and “Gong,” which were the names of officials or craftsmen in government workshops, indicating a significant increase in specialization [8]. Archaeological excavations have unearthed large iron plows weighing up to 15 kg from these workshop sites and building materials such as cylindrical tiles, roof tiles, and large hollow bricks. There is also a hollow brick measuring 202 cm long and 32 cm wide, which is the longest hollow brick from the Western Han Dynasty discovered in China to date [8]. The distribution of these handicraft sites also suggests a trend toward specialization and centralized handicraft production within the Imperial City. From a spatial perspective, the various sites do not exist in isolation but are interconnected, forming an organic whole within the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom. The Imperial City site is in a relatively central location, surrounded by areas for handicraft production, religious rituals, and burials. This layout facilitated the management and defense of the core area of the capital while also facilitating the supply of handicraft products to the ruling class and residents within the city. Furthermore, religious rituals and funeral activities could be carried out within a relatively reasonable spatial framework, reflecting the considerations of functional coordination and efficiency in the spatial planning of the Imperial City. The eave-end tiles (Wadang) of the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom all originate from large building foundations within the city, such as Gaohuping, Xiasigang, and Beigang (Figure 2).

There is no doubt that eave-end tiles (Wadang) are not only an important part of ancient Chinese architecture but also have a long history. They appeared in the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC–771 BC) and were widely used in architecture from the Warring States Period (475 BC–221 BC) to the Qin and Han Dynasties (221 BC–220 AD) [9,10]. Existing research results show that in the eave-end tile (Wadang) craft system from the Warring States Period to the early Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), the tile end generally exhibits a secondary molding process of first making the center and then connecting the edge wheel, and the decoration was completed using pressing, carving, and other techniques [11]. The combination of eave-end tiles (Wadang) and barrel tiles (Tongwa) is a key point in the research of manufacturing technology. Its evolution is of great significance in different periods of time. The development can be divided into three main methods: directly coiling mud strips on the back of the tile to form a complete barrel tile and then cutting off half of the barrel after it is half dry [11]. From the Qin Dynasty to the early Western Han Dynasty, the shaped tile surface was stuck onto the finished cylindrical tile using clay, and then half of the cylinder was cut off. From the Qin Dynasty to the early Western Han Dynasty, the mainstream method involved directly sticking the formed tile surface to the pre-made half of the barrel tile, without any cutting marks. After the combination of eave-end tiles and barrel tiles, the complete barrel needs to be split into two. Currently, there are two main types of research on this type of cutting technology: rotary cutting using knife tools and wire cutting.

At present, the most in-depth research is on the wire cutting technology for connecting eave-end tiles and barrel tiles. Cai Yan et al. summarized a hybrid method that combines complete wire cutting with wire cutting of the barrel body and knife cutting of the joint [11]. Li Falin noted that half-tiles are directly divided into two, while round eave-end tiles are cut longitudinally along the “L”-shaped route on the back of the eave-end or through two holes with wire cutting [12]. Liu Zhendong and Zhang Jianfeng made a detailed restoration of the wire cutting method of Chang’an City in the Western Han Dynasty, distinguishing the different cuts formed by pulling from the inside out and from the outside in [12]. Regarding the production method of eave-end tiles, there are two methods of making clay blanks in the Western Han Dynasty: coiling and molding. Handmade clay blanks often leave traces of beating, such as pockmarks and rope patterns on the inside. The molding method requires the use of an inner mold [12]. From the late Warring States period to the Qin Dynasty, the pockmarked inner wall tiles may have been formed by beating from the inside after removing the inner mold. The Han Dynasty cloth-patterned inner wall tiles were formed by beating from the outside while retaining the inner mold (lined with wet cloth) [13]. For the vertical rope pattern on barrel tiles, the texture might be applied via roller impression, or it could be molded using a cylindrical outer form that has ropes wrapped around it [13].

This indicates that there is some modern research on the production process and archaeological evidence of eave-end tiles (Wadang), which provides a basis and reference for studying its technological background. On the other hand, many scholars have also discussed red clay objects or materials from the perspective of materials science. Hossein et al. analyzed the major and trace elements and mineral content of pottery fragments in the southern region of Sistan and found that the prehistoric fragments did not originate from the Sistan region. Local production and trade activities have existed in Sistan since prehistoric times and continued until the Islamic period [14]. Mazzocchin et al. analyzed the physicochemical properties of six pigments on pottery fragments found during the archaeological excavation of a Roman villa in Vicenza (Contrà Pedemuro, S. Biagio), and their composition testified to active trade exchanges in the Roman era [15]. Moon et al. analyzed unearthed black pottery from Pungnaptoseong and identified clay minerals and iron oxides that were difficult to identify using bulk powder XRD analysis [16]. This information can be used to analyze the firing techniques used in the pottery. Choi et al. analyzed the physical and mineralogical characteristics of Neolithic and Bronze Age pottery unearthed in Korea, particularly factors such as mineral composition, firing temperature, and pottery body color. They also used Mössbauer spectroscopy to determine the phase composition of iron-containing components in the pottery [17]. Specifically, regarding ancient architectural materials, Kostova et al. systematically determined the raw materials and production technologies of archaeological bricks and tiles from Southeast Bulgaria through a comprehensive combination of chemical, phase, and thermal analyses, providing a robust methodological reference for the reverse engineering of ancient ceramic building materials [18]. While these global studies offer valuable insights into ancient manufacturing technologies and material trade, specific research focusing on architectural components like red clay eave-end tiles in the Minyue Kingdom region remains relatively scarce.

These studies offer new insights into ancient trade and cultural exchange, but there is relatively little research on materials such as red clay eave-end tiles, which are used in architectural construction. In addition, current research on eave-end tiles from this period, and even on their historical background, is mainly focused on the political center of the Qin and Han Dynasties [11]. Recently, the application of systematic petrographic and chemical analyses has begun to expand to other significant regional architectural heritages. For instance, Zhao et al. (2025) successfully utilized a similar analytical framework to investigate the ceramic roof tile end caps from the ritual temple of the Jin Dynasty in Changbai Mountain, providing an essential comparative case and structural model for understanding the localized production technologies of ancient building materials [19]. Despite these methodological advancements in other regions, there is still little research on eave-end tiles in the Minyue Kingdom region. There is still little research on eave-end tiles in the Minyue region. On the other hand, for the area of the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom Ruins, there are many studies that use experimental materials science methods on other unearthed cultural relics in the area, such as metallographic experimental research on ironware unearthed from the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom [20]. However, there are relatively few studies focusing on eave-end tiles from the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom, and systematic research on them has not yet been fully carried out.

Therefore, the goal of this study is not merely the material characterization of individual artifacts. By establishing a comprehensive physicochemical archive of Minyue Kingdom pottery, this study aims to achieve two more ambitious goals: (1) To provide a scientific material baseline for the evidence-based restoration and conservation of similar architectural heritage in the future, ensuring material compatibility during intervention. And (2) to construct a localized reference database that will help identify the provenance of other red pottery eave-end tiles unearthed in the wider southeastern region, thereby tracing the spread of ancient crafts and regional trade networks.

2. Materials and Methods

Combining scientific experimental analysis with traditional literature research, this study comprehensively examines Han Dynasty red pottery eave-end tiles (Wadang) unearthed from the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom. The research involved two main steps: analyzing the raw material composition and microstructure of the eave-end tile specimens using laboratory techniques and reconstructing the historical production process through a systematic review of the literature and field research.

2.1. Han Dynasty Red Pottery Eave-End Tiles (Wadang) from the Minyue Kingdom

As noted above, eave-end tiles are important components of traditional Chinese architecture, serving both decorative and practical functions [21,22,23]. Typically located at the eaves, they consist of a dang (front) and a barrel tile [24]. The front of the eave-end tiles is called the dangmian (front face), while the back is called the dangbei (back face). The edge of the dangmian (front face) features a raised strip of clay called the bianlun (edge wheel), while the edge of the dangbei (back face) features a raised strip of clay called the danglip (當唇). Barrel tiles connect to the dang at one end, and the other end is called the tilelip (瓦唇). The upward-facing side of a barrel tile is raised, known as the convex side, while the downward-facing side is concave, known as the concave side. Some barrel tiles have holes for inserting tile nails. Before the Han Dynasty, Fujian was primarily home to the Minyue people, who primarily built structures in stilt houses or hut-style structures, without a tradition of using bricks and tiles. In the fifth year of Emperor Gaozu of Han (202 BC), Wuzhu (無諸) was enthroned as King of Minyue, and the Minyue Kingdom began to closely interact with the Central Plains. Their architecture, pottery, iron smelting, and even their official system and writing system bore a deep imprint of Central Plains culture. Eave-end tiles also appear extensively in Fujian architecture. The Han Dynasty eave-end tiles unearthed in Fujian are primarily found at the Chengcun Village site in Wuyishan and throughout the urban area of Fuzhou City, all of which date back to the Minyue Kingdom period of the Western Han Dynasty [25]. This study examines a Han Dynasty red pottery eave-end tile unearthed from the ruins of the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom (Figure 3). Only a portion of the dangmian (front face) remains. The remaining portion shows some signs of erosion (Figure 4), but the pattern remains clear, providing support for future research.

From a structural engineering perspective, the Wadang (瓦當) serves as a crucial terminal component, connecting a complex, self-organizing roof drainage system composed of interlaced flat tiles (板瓦) and barrel tiles (筒瓦). Its spatial configuration utilizes recessed flat tiles as gutters (water channels) and raised barrel tiles as ridges covering the longitudinal joints between adjacent rows of flat tiles. To prevent backflow and capillary leakage during heavy rainfall, continuous tiles along the slope are assembled with a high nesting ratio, using gravity to guide rainwater away from the structural timber joints. The circular front face is attached to the semi-cylindrical barrel tile at the eaves edge by a raised back joint. This completely seals the inside of the hollow barrel tile (Figure 5). This specific interlocking interface serves two practical engineering purposes: it acts as a structural stop, preventing entire rows of tiles from sliding down the slope. At the same time, it forms an impermeable barrier, guiding the accumulated rainwater to drain vertically over the edge wheel (邊輪), successfully protecting the wooden rafters and eaves pillars below from moisture intrusion and rot.

To further clarify the chronological attributes of this red pottery eave-end tile sample, this study employed the typological comparison method, reconstructing and comparing the morphological characteristics of the unearthed eave-end tile fragment (Figure 6a) with a complete rubbing of a typical Han Dynasty cloud-patterned eave-end tile (Figure 6a). As shown in the remaining features in Figure 6a, this eave-end tile has a high-raised hemispherical central knob, with clear cross grid lines remaining around the knob. This divides the tile surface into four quadrants, with the remaining quadrants filled with flowing lines and curled ends. Through superimposed reconstruction analysis with the standard cloud-patterned eave-end tile pattern in Figure 6b (red marked area), it is confirmed that the remaining curve characteristics of the sample completely match the mainstream cloud pattern/cirrus pattern of the Han Dynasty. This cloud-patterned eave-end tile, characterized by a large central nipple and a four-part layout, was the most popular architectural component style during the Qin and Han Dynasties, especially the mid-Western Han Dynasty [26].

Although numerous cloud-patterned eave-end tiles have been found as burial goods in tombs from the Eastern Han to the Wei-Jin periods, considering the archaeological background of this sample’s excavation from the palace area of the Minyue Kingdom (c. 202 BC–110 BC), its decorative style is closer to the “capital region style” popular in Chang’an and its surrounding areas during the Western Han Dynasty, characterized by full composition and strong lines. This degree of standardization in the decorative patterns (such as the curvature of the cloud patterns and the proportion of the grid lines) further confirms the inference that Minyue artisans were deeply influenced by Central Plains Han culture in their decorative patterns. Therefore, based on the typological comparison of the decorative patterns, it can be confirmed that this eave-end tile sample is a product of the mid-Western Han Dynasty (mid-second century BC), highly consistent with the historical timeline of the Minyue Kingdom’s construction of its capital city during this period (c. 135 BC–110 BC), and belongs to typical Western Han Dynasty palace architectural remains.

2.2. Analysis Methods

To avoid potential contamination from the burial environment and weathering before instrumental analysis, cross-sectional samples containing the outer skin and inner core were prepared for micro-area analysis, including petrographic thin sections and micro-Raman spectroscopy. For XRD analysis, approximately 1–2 mm of the artifact surface that might contain soil residues or weathering products was removed using mechanical tools, and the uncontaminated inner core material was extracted and pulverized to a particle size of less than 75 μm for testing. Then we systematically investigated the microstructure, mineralogical composition, and elemental characteristics of the terracotta samples (Wadang) using a combination of modern materials analysis techniques, including petrographic analysis, quantitative image analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Raman spectroscopy. The experimental process consisted of three main stages: (1) sample selection and preparation; (2) microstructural and compositional analysis; and (3) mineralogical and elemental characterization.

(1).

Petrographic analysis. Petrographic analysis is used to observe the microstructure and phase composition characteristics of eave-end tiles (Wadang). Several representative samples were selected, cut, mounted, and polished to thin slices of approximately 30 μm in thickness. Polarized light microscopy (Leica DM4500P, Wetzlar, Hesse, Germany) was used for the analysis under parallel and crossed light, with a magnification of 50×–200×. Extended Depth of Field (EDF) technology was employed to synthesize multiple focal planes into a single clear image for detailed morphological analysis. The morphology, particle size distribution, and porosity of the quartz, feldspar, calcite, and glass phase components in the tiles were analyzed through thin-section images, thereby allowing us to infer their firing temperature and process level. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM, ZEISS EVO18) was used for additional observation of some samples to confirm the sintering relationship between mineral particles.

(2).

Quantitative image analysis. To supplement qualitative lithofacies observations and achieve accurate characterization of the distribution of mixed components, we conducted a quantitative analysis of thin-section micrographs based on digital image segmentation. Using a custom Python (Version 3.14.3) script based on the OpenCV library, the original images were converted from RGB to HSV (hue, saturation, lightness) color space to enhance the contrast between mineral inclusions and the clay matrix. An adaptive thresholding algorithm was applied to segment quartz grains based on their high brightness and low saturation characteristics, followed by morphological opening to remove noise. Statistical analysis was then performed on the segmented binary masks to calculate the quartz area fraction (Quartz Area Fraction, %) to indicate the abundance of mixed materials. Furthermore, the geometric parameters of individual grains were extracted, including equivalent diameter (for assessing grain size distribution), roundness (4π × area/perimeter², for assessing grain roundness), and aspect ratio, providing quantitative data support for interpreting raw material origin and processing standardization.

(3).

X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). XRD was used to identify the main mineral phases in the eave-end tile (Wadang) samples. The experiment used a Bruker D8 Advance X-ray diffractometer, Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.5406 Å), tube voltage of 40 kV, and tube current of 40 mA. The scanning range was 5–80° (2θ), step size 0.02°, and scanning rate 2°/min. The samples were crushed to a particle size of <75 μm and then loaded into the sample holder for compaction. The obtained diffraction patterns were matched with the Powder Diffraction File (PDF)-4 of the International Centre for Diffraction Data (ICDD) database (https://www.icdd.com/pdf-4-minerals/, accessed on 8 October 2025) and qualitatively identified in combination with JCPDS cards. The main mineral identified was quartz, while other trace phases were not detected due to the masking effect of the strong quartz peaks and their low content. For some samples, the crystal phase ratio was estimated using a semi-quantitative method to assist in determining the firing temperature and raw material ratio.

(4).

Raman spectroscopy analysis. Raman spectroscopy is used to identify the mineral structure and glass phase characteristics of the samples. A Horiba LabRAM HR Evolution Raman spectrometer was used, with a laser wavelength of 532 nm and a laser power controlled at <1 mW to avoid thermal damage. The microscope magnification was 50×. The spectral acquisition range was 100–2000 cm⁻¹, and each sample was tested three times and averaged. Raman data were processed and baseline corrected using LabSpec 6 software. The main mineral vibration peaks (such as Si–O stretching vibration and Al–O angular vibration) were determined via comparison with the literature database and verified with the XRD results to identify possible amorphous phases and mineral transformation characteristics.

In addition, the researchers also searched for some local gazetteers and conducted field surveys to supplement the discussion on the tile-end production process.

3. Results

3.1. Petrographic Analysis Results

Polarized and unpolarized lithofacies images show that the pottery exhibits slight variations in color under natural light, with the matrix primarily exhibiting tan or yellow-brown hues. Numerous light-colored mineral grains of varying sizes and shapes are dispersed within the matrix, featuring a relatively random distribution and a small number of darker particles interspersed. Figure 7 shows three banded layers, each of relatively light white and light gray. These layers contrast with the reddish-brown matrix, creating a distinct color and texture. The arrangement of the mineral grains within the pottery exhibits a certain degree of randomness, with some small darker spots or particles observed within the matrix.

The polarized lithofacies image shows a uniform reddish-brown matrix, in contrast to the unpolarized image (Figure 8), which displays significant color variation within the ceramic body and numerous light-colored particles clearly visible in the matrix. The mineral particles in the polarized image appear more tightly integrated with the matrix, while dark speckled particles are more prominent, presumably impurities or other mineral components. Three-layered banding is still observed, but the upper portion appears black. Furthermore, no large, obvious pores or loose areas are observed in either the polarized or unpolarized state, indicating a tight bond between particles within the eave-end tile and a dense structure. Therefore, it is inferred that the eave-end tile underwent a thorough sintering process, resulting in well-bonded particles, a dense matrix, and excellent chemical stability.

3.2. Microstructural Heterogeneity Analysis

To further investigate the homogeneity of the body and the level of raw material processing in the Minyue Kingdom eave-end tile, we conducted high-precision quantitative image analysis of four different micro-regions of the same eave-end tile sample. The results revealed significant microstructural heterogeneity in this eave-end tile. Statistical data (

Table 1. Quantitative statistical analysis of microstructure of red pottery eave-end tile samples from the Minyue Kingdom.

Sample	1	2	3	4
Quartz Area (%)	9.37	12.38	17.67	21.30
Total Count	2229	4047	6415	3182
Mean Size (µm)	4.08	4.19	3.77	5.97
Median Size (µm)	2.56	2.73	2.40	3.74
Max Size (µm)	192.24	50.84	63.27	95.57
Circularity	0.62	0.63	0.59	0.54
Aspect Ratio	1.46	1.37	1.37	1.44

Source: Author statistics.

and Figure 9) show that, although the mineral composition is consistent across regions, the quartz distribution density exhibits significant fluctuations, ranging from a minimum of 9.37% (Sample 1) to a maximum of 21.30% (Sample 4), with a difference of more than two times between regions. This significant differentiation between quartz-rich and quartz-poor areas within a single artifact strongly suggests that, although the artisans may have repeatedly tamped or kneaded the clay during preparation, they did not achieve the complete homogenization level seen in modern industrial production. The coexistence of a densely distributed area with 6415 particles (Sample 3) and a sparse area with only 2229 particles (Sample 1) suggests that the raw material for this eave-end tile did not undergo fine washing or multi-stage sieving but rather retained some of the non-uniform characteristics of the original clay during natural deposition. This non-uniform body structure is a typical distinctive characteristic that distinguishes ancient hand-wedging clay processing from mechanical processing, objectively reflecting the relatively primitive and extensive regional technical characteristics retained in the raw material pretreatment stage of the Minyue Kingdom pottery workshops.

Further analysis of the particle size distribution and geometry of quartz particles provides more robust microscopic evidence for the in situ sourcing of the raw materials. While the average particle size across the four sampling areas was generally concentrated in the silt grade of 3.77 μm to 5.97 μm, a significant coarsening trend was observed in localized areas (such as Sample 4). The maximum particle size reached 95.57 μm, and exceptionally large particles with a diameter of 192.24 μm were detected in Sample 1. This poorly sorted particle size distribution pattern (an extremely wide particle size range and positively skewed distribution) is highly consistent with the characteristics of residual soil formed by natural weathering. More importantly, morphological factor analysis showed that the average circularity of quartz particles in all areas was at a low level of 0.54 to 0.63, and the aspect ratio remained between 1.37 and 1.46. This indicates that the particles generally retained their original angular crystalline morphology, untouched by long-distance water transport and erosion. Particularly in Figure 9d, which has the highest quartz content, the roundness is the lowest (0.54), exhibiting the most pronounced angular characteristics. Considering the geological background of the widespread distribution of Yanshanian granite and rhyolite in the Wuyi Mountains region, this high-content, low-roundness, and angular microscopic feature strongly supports the view that the raw material for this eave-end tile was directly derived from the residual colluvial clay layer near the local weathered parent rock, rather than being imported through long-distance trade. This verifies the earlier conclusion, based on microscopic materials science, that the eave-end tile was made using local clay from the Minyue Kingdom.

3.3. XRD Analysis

To accurately determine the mineral phase composition and microcrystalline structure of the Han Dynasty eave-end tile, this study employed X-ray diffraction (XRD) to systematically test the powder sample. The resulting diffraction patterns are shown in Figure 10. In Figure 10, the red curve represents the experimental measurement data of the eave-end tile sample, and the green curve is the standard reference spectrum of quartz (SiO₂) (RRUFF ID: R040031). Overall, the experimental curves show a stable baseline and a low background, indicating high crystal integrity. The comparison between the two spectra shows extremely high agreement; all the major characteristic diffraction peaks of the eave-end tile sample correspond to those of standard quartz crystals. In particular, the strongest diffraction peak at 2θ ≈ 26.7° (corresponding to the d₁₀₁ crystal plane of quartz) and the second strongest peak at 2θ ≈ 20.9° are sharp, have narrow half-width at half-maximum (FWHM), and are significantly strong, which confirms that α-quartz is the absolutely dominant mineral phase constituting the matrix of this eave-end tile.

The single and high-strength quartz mineral phase characteristic provides clues for inferring the parameters of pottery-making techniques during the Minyue Kingdom period. The absence of characteristic peaks for primitive clay minerals such as Kaolinite, Illite, or Montmorillonite in the diffraction pattern indicates that the eave-end tile underwent sufficiently high firing temperatures during firing, resulting in complete dehydroxylation and phase transformation of the primitive clay minerals. These minerals then formed a glassy matrix with molten feldspar and other fluxes, tightly binding the high-temperature-resistant quartz particles. The presence of abundant highly crystalline quartz suggests that the artisans may have consciously selected high-silica sandy clay in the raw material formulation or artificially incorporated quartz sand as a temperant in the clay body. These quartz particles, acting as a framework, do not participate in the main chemical reactions during high-temperature sintering. Instead, they form a rigid support network, effectively reducing the volume shrinkage rate during drying and firing, preventing microcracks in the eave-end tile during rapid heating and cooling, and thus endowing the finished product with extremely high mechanical strength and thermal shock resistance.

Although eave-end tiles exhibit a pronounced reddish-brown or dark gray hue (typically indicating the presence of iron oxides), as ceramic materials, they should theoretically contain residual aluminosilicates such as feldspar. Notably, however, the current XRD pattern does not show distinct characteristic diffraction peaks for hematite, magnetite, or feldspar group minerals (such as microcline and albite) other than quartz. This is because, compared to the highly crystalline, large-particle quartz framework, the content of iron oxides and incompletely melted feldspar residues, which play a coloring role, is lower and highly dispersed in the matrix in the form of nanocrystals and colloids. Simultaneously, the extremely strong diffraction peaks of quartz produce a significant masking effect, obscuring signals from other weaker diffraction intensities. Therefore, the XRD results primarily characterize the macroscopic physical framework of the eave-end tile, while microscopic details regarding the coloring mechanism and flux composition require further analysis using Raman spectroscopy, which is more sensitive to micro-regions.

Furthermore, it is noteworthy that standard quartz undergoes a reversible α ⇄ β phase transition at approximately 573 °C, accompanied by an abrupt volumetric change. In many ceramic bodies, this volumetric shrinkage during cooling often induces microcracks and leads to structural weakening. However, the red pottery eave-end tile from Minyue Kingdom circumvents this problem. Based on our quantitative image analysis (Table 1), the quartz grains are predominantly silt-like, with an average equivalent diameter of only 3.77 to 5.97 μm. This highly dispersed, fine-grained quartz limits the absolute size change of individual particles during the phase transition, allowing the surrounding matrix to safely buffer micro-stress. Moreover, the integrity of this structure strongly suggests that the ancient kilns employed a natural, slow-cooling firing method, allowing thermal stress to be gradually released as the temperature dropped below the critical point of 573 °C.

3.4. Raman Spectroscopy Analysis

Based on the multi-point detection results of the surface (Figure 11a–c) and internal core (Figure 11d–f) of the eave-end tiles using micro-Raman spectroscopy, it was further confirmed that these eave-end tiles are silicate ceramics with quartz and feldspar as the framework minerals. The heterogeneity of their micro-mineral phases reveals a complex firing thermal history. Although feldspar signals were not visible in the XRD patterns due to the detection limit, Raman spectroscopy successfully captured the weak signals of feldspars (albite and anorthite) within the matrix, complementing the bulk analysis. Regarding the silicate matrix, combined with the XRD analysis described above, quartz, as the main component of the clay, exhibited significant Raman activity at multiple test points, with its characteristic Si-O bending vibration peak appearing around ~464 cm⁻¹. Notably, the quartz signal in Figure 11a shows a trend towards 470 cm⁻¹. The broadening of the shift is generally attributed to the low crystallinity of quartz particles in the clay or the stress on the lattice by the glassy matrix during sintering. Simultaneously, signals from feldspars are captured both internally and externally. The weak peak at ~510 cm⁻¹ in Figure 11f corresponds to the T-O-T bond stretching vibrations of albite or anorthite, while the signal near 742 cm⁻¹ in Figure 11c points to alkali feldspars such as microcline. This spectral feature of quartz and feldspar coexisting confirms, at the molecular spectroscopy level, that the artisans of the Minyue Kingdom used high-silica, feldspar-rich clay formed from local weathered granite or rhyolite as raw material for pottery making.

Regarding the coloring mechanism and firing atmosphere, Raman spectroscopy revealed significant differences in the distribution of iron oxides on the surface and inside eave-end tiles, outlining a firing kinetic process of alternating oxidation and reduction. Hematite (α-Fe₂O₃), as the main coloring mineral in red terracotta, showed characteristic peaks (~292, 411, 610 cm⁻¹) at almost all test points. Particularly in the outer layer of eave-end tiles (Figure 11b,c) and some internal regions (Figure 11e), the high-intensity hematite signal indicates that the eave-end tiles experienced a sufficient oxidizing atmosphere during the final firing or cooling stages, resulting in the complete conversion of iron into red hematite. However, the characteristic main peaks of magnetite (Fe₃O₄) (~674–677 cm⁻¹) were also detected inside the eave-end tiles (Figure 11d,f). The presence of these reduced-phase minerals suggests that the core of the ceramic body may have retained traces of an early reducing atmosphere, or that the magnetite originally present in the raw materials was not completely oxidized. The sharp hematite peak appearing at ~290 cm⁻¹ in Figure 11e most likely corresponds to an iron-rich red slip or pigment layer applied intentionally for aesthetic purposes. This distribution of hematite-rich surface and magnetite-containing mineral phases explains the typical red terracotta appearance of these eave-end tiles.

4. Discussion

The above analysis shows that silica is the dominant component in eave-end tiles. Although XRD did not reveal feldspar peaks due to the masking effect of quartz, Raman spectroscopy successfully detected distinct signals of anorthite and albite. We believe there are two possible sources for their presence: one is the solid-phase reaction between calcium-containing substances in the raw materials and aluminosilicates at high temperatures during firing; the other is the inherent mineral composition of the clay raw materials.

Regarding the first view, that anorthite and albite are products of solid-phase reactions during firing, crystal chemistry studies have clearly shown that the melt structures of this system are highly similar and compatible [27]. During firing, they will not coexist stably as independent crystal phases but will strongly tend to dissolve in each other to form a plagioclase solid solution with uniform composition. This is the lowest energy and most stable state of this system at high temperatures [28]. This indicates that, if these feldspars were newly generated by raw material reactions during the high-temperature firing of these eave-end tiles, the product should be a plagioclase solid solution with dispersed composition. However, in the Raman spectroscopy (Figure 11) of eave-end tiles, two independent phases of anorthite and albite were observed. This phase evidence directly contradicts the phase morphology that should be produced by “new generation through high-temperature reactions”. Therefore, the possibility of “new generation during firing” can be ruled out. Therefore, a more reasonable explanation for the existence of two components, anorthite and albite, is that they are inherent mineral components in the clay raw materials and are retained during the firing process.

Regarding the second view, the clay used to make eave-end tiles is formed from primary rock through weathering, transportation, and sedimentation, and the mineral composition of the clay is mainly inherited from its parent rock. The ruins of the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom, located in the Wuyishan area of Fujian, boast a complex geological structure (Figure 12). The area was controlled by the Mesozoic Yanshan Movement. The subduction and subsequent retreat of the Paleo-Pacific Plate during the Cretaceous period [29] triggered large-scale magmatic activity, forming the widespread Zhejiang–Fujian volcanic intrusive belt [30]. This process not only created a basement of igneous rocks such as Yanshanian granite in the region [31] but also coexisted with volcanic rocks such as rhyolite in areas such as the west side of Wuyishan [32].

Regarding calcium feldspar, its formation and enrichment are closely related to specific magmatic processes. Studies have shown that calcium feldspar can be crystallized and enriched in large quantities from basic magma through the fractional crystallization of magma [32]. Although the Wuyishan area is dominated by intermediate-acidic rocks as a product of large-scale magmatic activity, its mineral assemblage usually contains plagioclase series minerals crystallized from the parent magma, and calcium feldspar, as a common end-member component of this series, is also widely distributed in it.

Regarding sodium feldspar, its formation is closely related to the sodium-rich magmatic environment, and it is one of the most important and common light-colored rock-forming minerals in intermediate-acidic igneous rocks (such as granite and rhyolite) [33,34]. The granite and rhyolite widely developed in the Wuyishan area are typical rock types with large amounts of independent sodium feldspar crystals.

Moreover, the Wuyishan area’s basement of these igneous rocks extensively covers the Cretaceous terrestrial red sandstone [35]. As sedimentary rocks, their debris components are derived from the above-mentioned igneous rock parent material. The mineral components contained in these igneous rocks were inherited as stable detrital minerals and eventually became the source of the mineral components of local pottery clay. The detection of feldspar phases by Raman spectroscopy, combined with the high-quartz nature revealed by XRD, showed that the tile samples contained calcium feldspar and sodium feldspar, which are typical mineral characteristics of local pottery clay, indicating that the raw materials were likely to be from the local area. The Chengcun Village’s Houshan Western Han Dynasty pottery kiln site, discovered one kilometer away from the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom site, confirmed the production model of using local materials and firing nearby (Figure 13). This confirms the previously discussed principle that “within a hundred miles, there must be soil of a suitable color for human habitation” [36].

Complex craftsmanship and diverse types characterize the eave-end tiles of the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom. Different production processes produce various types, and some types account for a large proportion of the eave-end tiles unearthed from the site (

Table 2. Analysis of production process.

Process Steps	Process Name	Process Type
1	Selecting the inner mold	(1). Inner mold structure: Several wooden sticks are placed vertically to form a cylinder. (2). Isolation membrane type: Type A with pockmarks, Type B with convex dots (tiles unearthed from the ruins of the Minyue Kingdom are mainly of this type), Type C with cloth patterns
2	Throwing	Type A clay strips are coiled around the inner mold; Type B clay sheets are rolled around the inner mold.
3	Beating to shape	Type A uses a rope-patterned roller; Type B uses a rope-patterned pottery paddle.
4	Trimming the convex surface of barrel tiles	Type A: all-over rope pattern; Type B: plain and interlaced rope pattern sections; Type C: plain at the beginning with rope pattern at the end (this is the main type of eave-end tiles excavated from the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom Ruins); Type D: plain (no patterns or designs).
5	Trimming the concave surface of barrel tiles	After removing the inner mold, rotate the wheel to finish the surface. After partially finishing the surface, tap the convex points.
6	Making dangmian (front face)	(1). Theme: rope pattern, animal pattern, plant pattern, cloud pattern, text. (2). Structure: winding structure, symmetrical structure, etc. There is a relationship of inheritance and development between different themes and structures
7	Making the side wheel	Type A is coiled with mud strips; Type B is molded; Type C is without side wheel.
8	Connecting the dangmian (front face) to the barrel tiles	Type A: the dangmian and the barrel tile are manufactured integrally and then cut; Type B: the dangmian and the barrel tile are manufactured separately and then joined, leaving no cut marks; Type C: the dangmian and the barrel tile are manufactured separately, joined with clay strips, and then cut (this type of dangmian tile was primarily found at the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom).
9	Making the tile lip	Type A: wheel-made, the tile lip and barrel tile are manufactured separately and then joined; Type B: one end of the barrel tile is pressed inward to form the lip.
10	Cutting the barrel tile and dangmian	Type A: knife cutting; Type B: knife cutting and rope cutting (this type was used at the Ruins of Han Dynasty Ruins in Chengcun Village); Type C: rope cutting.
11	Finishing the dangbei (back face)	Some craftsmen trim the dangbei (back face), demonstrating their meticulous craftsmanship.

Source: Based on field surveys, references [36,37] and other local chronicles. The types here are independent of each other in each step. They represent the number of different methods available in a given process step.

). Its process flow is basically consistent with the records of Tiangong Kaiwu (Exploitation of the Works of Nature) (天工開物) [37] from the Song Dynasty (Figure 14). This also indirectly confirms that the core technology and experience of eave-end tile craftsmanship, which existed at least in the Han Dynasty, continued to be passed down until the Song Dynasty.

The periodization of eave-end tile production techniques is based on the dating of sites. The architectural remains of the Minyue Kingdom’s capital dated to the early Han Dynasty, so the eave-end tile production techniques are aligned with this historical period.

The eave-end tile production techniques of the Minyue Kingdom Imperial City and the Chu-style craftsmanship exemplified by Shouchun City share similar supply and demand characteristics [38,39]. The inner molds of the eave-end tiles in both cases feature a raised dot pattern, and the connection between the tang and barrel tiles is achieved by making the tang and barrel tiles separately. Before the barrel tiles are cut, they are joined with clay strips and then cut. This differs from the eave-end tile production techniques of the Han capital Chang’an. Furthermore, the eave-end tiles of the Minyue Kingdom Imperial City share the same “clay strip coiling” edge wheel production method as the Han capital Chang’an City [40], a feature not found in Chu-style craftsmanship. By systematically comparing the eave-end tiles’ craftsmanship of the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom with that of Chang’an City, the capital of the Han Dynasty, and Shouchun City, the capital of the Chu State, during the same period, it can be clearly observed that the local craftsmanship of the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom, which was formed on the basis of combining the imperial-centered craftsmanship centered in Chang’an City and the Chu-style craftsmanship centered in Shouchun City, has the characteristics of diversified fusion. This fusion is not a simple superposition of technologies but the result of adaptive transformation made by local craftsmen after selectively absorbing crafts from different cultures under the influence of the imperial center and the Chu State.

In practice, the standardization analysis of eave-end tile production processes requires consideration at both the overall and individual levels. Overall standardization refers to the degree of similarity between individual eave-end tiles. The higher the degree of standardization, the higher the individual similarity, directly reflecting the rigor and uniformity of the production system. This includes the uniformity of eave-end tile diameter, lip thickness, edge width, and barrel tile thickness. Individual standardization focuses on the level of standardization within a single eave-end tile and is positively correlated with the craftsman’s craftsmanship maturity. This reflects the craftsman’s ability to control detailed craftsmanship, such as thickness uniformity, edge width uniformity, and barrel tile thickness uniformity.

This reveals a striking polarization in the production techniques of the red pottery eave-end tile unearthed from the Minyue Kingdom’s capital city: a low consistency in raw material processing but a high degree of individual standardization. This characteristic is not accidental but rather a result of the Minyue Kingdom’s unique geopolitical position, handicraft management system, and technological transmission path. The low consistency in raw material processing profoundly reflects the complex relationship between the central government and local authorities under the “parallel system of prefectures and kingdoms” in the early Han Dynasty. Located on the southeastern edge of the empire, the Minyue Kingdom, as a non-royal vassal state enfeoffed in the early Han Dynasty, possessed a high degree of autonomy. Unlike the Han capital Chang’an, which was directly supervised by central institutions (such as the Shaofu) and had a strictly standardized official handicraft system, the imperial center’s administrative control and technological penetration into the Minyue region were relatively weak [41,42]. Archaeological evidence indicates that no official artisan teams directly dispatched by the central government were found in the Minyue capital city; its roof tile production mainly relied on local artisans. This “localized” production model led to the arbitrariness of the production system, and failing to form a systematic and rigorous unified mass production standard like that of the Qin and Han central government or the former Chu State. In addition, the Minyue Kingdom was established in the late Warring States period, and its state structure was established relatively recently. It did not have enough time to accumulate a mature and unified management system for state-run handicrafts, which resulted in a large degree of dispersion in the shape, size, and production details of eave-end tiles within the same site.

Combining the results in Section 3.2 above, this coexistence of highly standardized macroscopic forms and heterogeneous microscopic structures constitutes a unique technological portrait of Han Dynasty eave-end tiles in the Minyue Kingdom. While Han Dynasty eave-end tiles exhibit a high degree of individual standardization in appearance, size, and decoration, reflecting the sophisticated skills of artisans in shaping and trimming, the discreteness of microscopic data in body preparation reveals the adaptability and limitations of their technological approach. Although artisans skillfully mastered the principle of improving the thermal stability of pottery by adding or utilizing natural quartz sand to construct the framework, they still adhered to a relatively traditional workshop-style production model in mixing and homogenization. This technological characteristic differs from the highly standardized assembly line operations of the central government-run handicraft industry in the Qin and Han Dynasties. It also reflects the adaptive technological fusion with distinct regional characteristics formed by the Minyue Kingdom as a frontier vassal state, which, while absorbing Central Plains technology, was constrained by the characteristics of local raw materials and production conditions. This discovery not only supplements our understanding of the “invisible craftsmanship” in the ancient pottery production chain but also provides irreplaceable material evidence for understanding the cultural attributes of the Minyue Kingdom’s handicrafts, which “resemble the Central Plains in form but return to the local culture in essence”.

The high level of individual standardization is due to the creative integration and superb skills of Minyue craftsmen in the diverse craft traditions. Despite the lack of unified national production standards, Minyue craftsmen did not work in isolation but demonstrated a high degree of technical adaptability. They selectively absorbed the advanced craft traditions of the imperial center (represented by Chang’an City) and the Chu style (represented by Shouchun City): (1) In terms of production methods, Minyue craftsmen followed the process of Chu-style eave-end tile “dangmian (front face) and barrel tiles are made separately and joined with clay strips”, and retained the “convex dot pattern” feature on the inner mold. (2) In terms of shaping, they also integrated the “clay strip coiling” edge wheel making technology of Han-style eave-end tile. (3) In terms of cutting technology, they mastered the complex line cutting technology.

The technical standardization and high quality of the finished products (such as dense body and clear patterns) demonstrated at the individual level indicate that the Minyue craftsmen already possessed extremely high professional skills. Their fusion and innovation, which “takes the methods of Chang’an and preserves the style of Chu”, not only makes up for the lack of institutionalized management but also forms a unique Minyue regional eave-end tile craft system.

As the capital of the Minyue Kingdom in the early Han Dynasty, the Minyue Kingdom’s existence is closely linked to the evolution of local governance policies. The Minyue Kingdom chose a parallel system of prefectures and kingdoms in response to the two major local governance policies: abolishing feudal fiefdoms and establishing prefectures and counties, as well as restoring fiefdoms to vassal states. As a Han vassal state under this system, it enjoyed considerable autonomy. Furthermore, the establishment of the Minyue Kingdom was not the result of active planning by the Han Empire, but rather the direct result of an internal coup.

Evidence from the eave-end tile craftsmanship indicates that the Minyue Kingdom’s artisans were all local, with no involvement from the imperial center. The extremely low standardization exhibited in the production process of eave-end tiles in the Minyue Kingdom is not merely a technical characteristic but a profound reflection of the hindered spread of the Qin and Han imperial ruling philosophy in peripheral regions. The Qin and Han empires vigorously promoted practices such as “standardizing cart tracks and writing” and a strict system of official craftsmen (as seen in the Eighteen Qin Statutes: The Craft Statutes), regarding the standardized production of artifacts as a crucial means of establishing central authority and maintaining administrative order. However, this mode of government based on unification did not effectively penetrate the Minyue region. The arbitrariness in the form and craftsmanship of eave-end tiles discovered in archaeological finds confirms the absence of the empire’s strict laws and a standardized production system in this area. The evidence reveals that the early Han central government’s control over the southeastern frontier was a loose, “tributary” approach: while acknowledging the Minyue king’s high degree of autonomy, the central government’s administrative reach could not penetrate the micro-level of social production. This structural weakness in imperial control foreshadowed the later political centrifugal forces and eventual rebellion of the Minyue Kingdom [43]. This loose control resulted in the Minyue Kingdom lacking institutional identification and administrative reliance on the empire, laying the groundwork for its subsequent rebellion. This also indirectly shows that the subsequent rebellion of the Minyue Kingdom was not accidental but the inevitable result of the combined effect of insufficient imperial control and the expansion of local autonomy.

5. Conclusions

Overall, this study characterizes the Han Dynasty red pottery eave-end tile (Wadang) from the Minyue Kingdom as a silicate ceramic product manufactured using local raw materials. Combined petrographic and XRD analysis identified a mineralogical framework dominated by quartz (SiO₂), while Raman spectroscopy detected the presence of albite (NaAlSi₃O₈) and anorthite (CaAl₂Si₂O₈). The angular morphology and ill-sorted distribution of the quartz inclusions provide robust evidence that the clay was sourced from the local weathered granitic deposits of the Minyue region. Crucially, the firing process analysis reveals a sophisticated yet non-standardized technological approach. Raman spectroscopy uncovers a distinct mineralogical gradient—a hematite-rich (α-Fe₂O₃) surface formed under oxidizing conditions versus a magnetite-containing (Fe₃O₄) core preserving traces of reduction—demonstrating the artisans’ nuanced control over firing atmospheres. Most significantly, quantitative microstructural analysis exposes a dichotomy: while the typological design exhibits high individual standardization, the clay body reveals substantial heterogeneity, with quartz temper abundance fluctuating between 9.37% and 21.30% within a single artifact. This material inconsistency indicates a “workshop-style” production mode lacking the strict industrial homogenization of the Central Plains. Consequently, the Minyue eave-end tile represents an adaptive technological fusion, where artisans successfully integrated Imperial-style aesthetics with indigenous, localized manufacturing techniques.

In addition, the red pottery tiles unearthed from the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom are important relics of the Minyue Kingdom capital city architecture. Their heritage value is reflected in multiple dimensions. They provide physical evidence for the study of local crafts, artisan systems, and political structures during the Han Dynasty and have profound implications for the protection and management of architectural heritage today.

From a heritage perspective, the historical value of the eave-end tiles of the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom, characterized by low overall standardization and high individual standardization, directly demonstrates the autonomous nature of the vassal states under the parallel system of prefectures and kingdoms in the early Han Dynasty, as well as the historical reality of the Qin and Han empires’ weak control over peripheral regions. They serve as an important material vehicle for understanding central–local relations in the early Han Dynasty. In terms of cultural value, as both a decorative and functional component of the Minyue Kingdom capital’s architecture, eave-end tiles are unique to the Minyue region. As the result of the fusion of imperial-style and Chu-style craftsmanship by local Minyue Kingdom artisans, they directly reflect the collision and fusion of regional culture with that of the Central Plains and serve as a significant regional cultural symbol.

From a conservation perspective, future efforts must prioritize the relevance of eave-end tile craftsmanship and historical context. While protecting the eave-end tiles themselves, efforts must also be made to fully preserve the historical information inherent in them through scientific and archaeological research to prevent fragmentation of heritage value. Furthermore, attention should be paid not only to the eave-end tiles themselves but also to the firing process they reveal, transforming the static eave-end tiles into a dynamic cultural heritage.

From a heritage conservation and archaeological perspective, the mineralogical and microstructural data obtained in this study establish a crucial scientific baseline for future restoration interventions. Understanding the precise proportions of quartz inclusions and matrix composition ensures the selection of compatible materials during physical restoration. Furthermore, this localized material archive serves as a reliable reference standard for future probate studies, enabling researchers to trace the origins and spatial distribution of similar ceramic artifacts in the peripheral regions of the Han Dynasty empire.

It should be noted that, due to the preciousness of the unearthed artifacts and the current limitations of destructive mechanical testing, this study has not yet conducted direct quantitative testing of the macroscopic thermal and mechanical properties of the red pottery eave-end tile, such as density, porosity, compressive strength, and specific deformation temperature. Future research will focus on finding suitable non-destructive testing techniques or conducting a systematic physical and mechanical property assessment after obtaining more edge fragment samples. These follow-up studies will contribute to a more comprehensive reconstruction of the firing temperature profiles and structural engineering characteristics of Minyue Kingdom pottery.