Application of 4D Technologies in Heritage: A Comprehensive Review

Three-dimensional (3D) modelling has become essential in the heritage field, but static models cannot capture how heritages evolve over time. To this end, more and more studies have presented four-dimensional (4D, i.e., 3D + time) applications. However, there is no systematic overview. Hence, this study provides a comprehensive review of 4D technologies applied to heritage. Through a two-stage Web of Science retrieval, 56 studies (2000–2025) were analysed, covering 3D and heritage building information modelling (HBIM) construction, time incorporation, calibration, and interaction. This review explicitly focuses on how time is incorporated into survey-anchored 3D and HBIM models, and how calibration ensures the reliability of diachronic interpretation. The review distinguishes between survey-anchored 3D and HBIM pipelines, outlines diachronic modelling and calibration workflows, and summarises emerging extensions such as depth sensing, temporal lensing, and time traceback. Moreover, it also provides a mini-review of five-dimensional (5D) applications and their future directions inspired by the 4D overview. The specific contributions of this study are threefold: (i) it synthesises a complete and comparable workflow for integrating time into ordinary 3D models and HBIM; (ii) it formalises calibration principles and reportable metrics for trustworthy temporal reconstruction; and (iii) it clarifies how emerging 5D extensions build on 4D practice rather than replace it.