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Article

Evaluation of the Mechanical and Durability Properties of Marble Waste-Modified Rigid Pavement Material

by
Ifeyinwa Ijeoma Obianyo
1,*,
Maurice Simon Nwaforcha
1,
Kudu Yusuf
1,
Abdulganiyu Sanusi
1,
Abubakar Dayyabu
1,
Musa Umar Kolo
1 and
Azikiwe Peter Onwualu
2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 900108, Nigeria
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, African University of Science and Technology, Abuja 900107, Nigeria
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2025, 15(22), 4159; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15224159
Submission received: 28 September 2025 / Revised: 14 November 2025 / Accepted: 16 November 2025 / Published: 18 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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Abstract

One of the environmental concerns today is the increasing amount of waste generated from marble quarrying and processing. This study evaluates the mechanical and durability properties of marble waste-modified rigid pavement material. A series of laboratory tests was conducted to obtain the properties of marble waste-modified rigid pavement material. The slump value decreases as the percentage of marble waste increases. As the percentage of marble waste increases, the dry density gradually decreases from 2770 kg/m3 to 2590 kg/m3. Comparison of the 7-day and 28-day compressive strength indicates that replacing the gravel with marble waste resulted in early strength gain, making it suitable for use in conditions that require early strength gain. The scanning electron microscopy results indicated higher calcium content for the 10% marble waste sample, which is responsible for the cementation and supports the higher compressive strength obtained for the sample at 7 days of curing, due to early strength gain. The study is the first to show the synergistic effect of marble waste on early strength and durability in rigid pavements. These findings showed that marble waste can be used as a modifier in rigid pavement materials. The study contributes to Sustainable Development Goals 9 and 11.

1. Introduction

Waste from marble is a major environmental issue worldwide, especially in nations with sizable industries for the manufacture and processing of marble. Because marble debris can contaminate soil and water sources, its disposal presents dangers to the environment and human health [1,2]. Furthermore, it is estimated that 30 percent of the total marble produced is wasted during the extraction and processing of marble [3]. The disposal is a major problem, and creative and sustainable methods must be developed to lessen its negative effects on the environment.
Rapid growth in industrial production and the consequent increase in the corresponding consumption have led to a fast decline in available natural resources, including the depletion of construction materials [1]. The excessive extraction of natural aggregates, such as gravel, poses significant environmental concerns, including the degradation of ecosystems, loss of biodiversity, and increased vulnerability to natural disasters like floods. As finite resources, natural aggregates are being depleted at an alarming rate, threatening their availability for future generations and driving up costs due to scarcity. The unsustainable exploitation of these resources underscores the need for responsible management and exploration of alternative materials to mitigate the environmental and economic impacts of aggregate extraction. This industrial growth has implications for sustainable development. A high volume of industrial production has generated a considerable amount of waste materials. Due to the need to lower waste disposal costs and advance sustainable development, the use of waste materials in building is becoming increasingly popular worldwide [4,5]. Waste marble has been recognized as a possible resource for building, especially for the manufacture of mortar and concrete [6,7]. However, there is currently little usage of marble debris in construction, and further study is required to completely comprehend both the potential advantages and difficulties of this material, as well as the potential for project delivery and performance.
Rigid pavement materials are frequently employed in construction because they are long-lasting and resistant to high traffic loads [8]. However, substantial amounts of natural resources, such as fine and coarse aggregates, are needed to produce rigid pavement materials [9,10]. Reducing the environmental effects of building and advancing sustainable development may be possible using waste materials, such as marble waste, in the making of rigid pavement materials. The construction sector is responsible for a substantial proportion of global waste production. In many countries, construction waste accounts for more than 30% of total waste generated annually in the construction industry [11]. This includes materials such as concrete, wood, metals, plastics, glass, and masonry, many of which are either discarded or poorly recycled.
As urbanization continues, the demand for new buildings, roads, and other infrastructure grows, leading to an increase in construction waste generation. The increasing pace of urban development, combined with the demolition of older buildings and infrastructure, exacerbates this issue. One of the most immediate environmental impacts of construction waste is the strain it places on landfills [12]. When construction waste is not properly recycled or repurposed, it ends up in landfills, contributing to the depletion of available space. Landfills themselves have significant environmental consequences, including the production of greenhouse gases, such as methane, which contribute to global warming. Many construction materials, such as natural aggregates (sand, gravel, and crushed stone), are sourced from finite natural resources. The continuous extraction of these materials for construction purposes leads to the depletion of valuable natural resources, damaging ecosystems and biodiversity in the process. As the demand for construction materials increases, the environmental degradation associated with their extraction increases. Therefore, this study addresses the issues of depletion of conventional construction materials and construction waste management.
Numerous researchers have explored the use of waste materials in rigid pavement materials, such as reclaimed asphalt pavement and recycled concrete aggregate [13,14]. Growing concerns about waste management and environmental sustainability have brought a lot of attention to the use of waste materials in construction in recent years [5,15]. One waste material that has been recognized as having the potential to be used in building is marble waste. Numerous researchers have examined the use of marble waste in construction, including its usage as a component in cement-based products [16], as an aggregate in concrete [17,18], and cement-based adhesive mortar [19]. However, there has not been much focus on using waste marble to make hard paving materials, and further study is necessary to completely comprehend its possible advantages and limitations. Because of their resilience to high traffic loads and longevity, rigid pavement materials are frequently utilized in construction [20].
Large quantities of natural resources, such as cement and aggregates, are needed to produce rigid pavement materials [21]. Reducing the environmental effects of building and advancing sustainable development are two possible outcomes of using waste materials, such as marble refuse, in stiff pavement materials. The utilization of waste materials in rigid pavement materials, such as reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) has been the subject of several studies [14,22,23]. According to these investigations, stiff pavement materials’ mechanical and durability qualities can be enhanced by using waste materials. However, there is currently little use of marble waste in hard pavement materials, and further study is required to completely comprehend both its potential advantages and disadvantages. The performance and longevity of rigid pavement materials depend heavily on their mechanical characteristics, such as their tensile, flexural, and compressive strengths [24]. The performance and longevity of rigid pavement materials are also greatly influenced by their durability characteristics, such as their resistance to abrasion, chemical assault, and freeze–thaw cycles. The mechanical and durability characteristics of rigid pavement materials modified with waste materials, such as bone ash and crumb rubber, have been the subject of numerous investigations [25,26]. According to these investigations, rigid pavement materials’ mechanical and durability qualities can be enhanced by using waste materials. To completely grasp their potential advantages and disadvantages, more research is required to thoroughly understand the mechanical and durability characteristics of rigid pavement materials treated with marble waste.
Potential advantages of using waste marble in rigid pavement materials include lower environmental effects, better mechanical and durability qualities, and financial savings [27]. The findings of the study show that marble powder replacement of up to 10–15% improved the concrete compressive and tensile strength greatly. Additionally, the study suggests that higher replacement levels may not be effective. However, there are a few possible drawbacks to using marble waste in rigid pavement materials, such as potential contamination, restricted availability, and variations in the waste’s characteristics [28]. Numerous studies have examined the possible advantages and drawbacks of using marble waste in construction, including its usage as a filler in asphalt concrete [29,30]. These studies only focused on using marble waste as a filler in asphalt mixtures without consideration of its application in the rigid pavements. Nevertheless, more research is required to completely comprehend the possible advantages and disadvantages of employing marble waste in rigid pavement materials, as they are currently unknown. In summary, the utilization of marble waste in rigid pavement materials may encourage sustainable growth and lessen the negative effects of building on the environment. Nevertheless, more research is required to completely comprehend the potential advantages and limitations of rigid pavement materials modified with marble waste, as their mechanical and durability qualities are still unknown. The purpose of this study is to assess the rigid pavement material adapted from marble waste’s mechanical and durability qualities, as well as its possible application in building.
A common technique for constructing roads, highways, and airport runways is rigid pavement construction. A layer of compacted aggregate base course supports a concrete slab, usually 150–300 mm thick, that makes up rigid pavements [31]. The aggregate base course gives the pavement stability and drainage, while the concrete slab is made to endure environmental factors and traffic pressures.
The main part of a rigid pavement is the concrete slab, and the pavement’s durability and performance are greatly influenced by its characteristics. Usually, a combination of cement, water, aggregate, and admixtures makes up the concrete slab. The concrete slab’s durability, tensile strength, and compressive strength are important characteristics that determine how well it can tolerate environmental factors and traffic loads. It may be possible to enhance the concrete slab’s qualities and lessen its environmental impact by adding additional materials, like waste marble. By substituting marble debris for natural aggregate, the requirement for virgin materials and the environmental effects of their extraction and processing can be decreased.
An essential part of a rigid pavement is the aggregate base course, which gives the pavement support and drainage. Usually made up of a layer of compacted aggregate, including crushed stone or gravel, the aggregate base course serves as a sturdy foundation for the concrete slab [31]. The rigid pavement’s performance and longevity are greatly influenced by the aggregate base course’s characteristics, including its density, moisture content, and particle size distribution. It may be possible to enhance the aggregate base course’s qualities and lessen its environmental impact by adding supplementary materials. Site preparation, excavation, aggregate base course building, concrete slab construction, and finishing operations are some of the steps in the rigid pavement construction process. The rigid pavement’s durability and performance are greatly influenced by the characteristics of the aggregate base course and concrete slab [31]. It may be possible to enhance the concrete slab and aggregate base course’s qualities and lessen their environmental impact by adding additional materials, like marble waste.
Large amounts of marble waste are produced during the extraction and processing of marble, which poses a serious environmental risk. But marble waste can also be a useful resource in construction, especially when building rigid pavement [17]. Reduced greenhouse gas emissions, resource conservation, and lower waste disposal expenses are just a few advantages of using waste marble in rigid pavement construction. However, there are a few drawbacks to using marble debris, such as variations in composition and characteristics, and possible effects on the pavement’s longevity and mechanical qualities. A comprehensive strategy that takes into account the effects of construction methods on the environment, society, and economy is necessary for sustainable rigid pavement construction. This strategy makes use of energy-efficient building methods, sustainable materials, and recycling and waste reduction tactics. Utilizing waste materials is one way to lessen the quantity of virgin materials needed for building, while addressing the environmental pollution caused by these waste materials [32].
Sustainable rigid pavement construction also requires energy-efficient building methods. These methods include shorter material transportation lengths, better construction procedures, and the utilization of energy-efficient machinery. Cold in-place recycling, hot in-place recycling, and warm mix asphalt are a few energy-efficient construction methods that can be applied to rigid pavement construction. Reduced energy use, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and enhanced performance and durability are just a few advantages that these methods can offer.
One of the biggest producers of waste materials in the world is the building sector. These waste items include construction and demolition (C&D) waste, excavation waste, and demolition waste. Waste materials from the construction sector are difficult to manage since they demand a lot of resources and, if not handled correctly, can harm the environment. Because of the increasing amount of waste and the requirement to lower greenhouse gas emissions, traditional waste management techniques like landfilling and incineration are becoming less and less viable. One important part of the waste materials used in the construction sector is marble waste. Marble’s durability and visual attractiveness make it a popular building material. However, large volumes of waste, including marble aggregate, marble powder, and marble sludge, are produced during the extraction and processing of marble [33]. Waste marble can be utilized as an additional material in construction, such as in the creation of asphalt, mortar, and concrete. However, due to worries about possible effects on the longevity and mechanical qualities of building materials, the use of marble waste in construction is still restricted.
There are several advantages to using waste products from the building sector as supplemental materials in construction, such as: lower expenses for disposing of waste; preservation of natural resources, decrease in greenhouse gas emissions, and increased sustainability in building methods [34]. However, there are a few drawbacks to using waste products from the construction sector, such as variability in waste materials’ composition and characteristics; possible effects on the durability and mechanical qualities of building materials; and the requirement for specific tools and processing methods.
According to these investigations [35,36], the mechanical and durability properties of rigid pavement materials can be enhanced by the utilization of waste materials. The use of marble dust, marble limestone, and crushed marble as a filler in asphalt mixtures has been investigated [37]. The findings indicate that marble dust and crushed marble can be used as filler material and sand in asphalt mixtures. A recent study explored using marble waste filler to develop an asphalt-sand sheet for road pavement [38]. The study’s findings show that marble waste can be utilized as a filler in the asphalt-sand sheet since all Marshall parameter evaluations satisfy Indonesian requirements. Another study utilized marble waste as a coarse aggregate in rigid pavement using rice husk ash as the admixture [39]. The findings of the study indicate that a lower percentage of 30% of marble waste gave a higher compressive strength and flexural strength of concrete compared to higher percentages of 50% and 70%. The use of crushed marble waste as an aggregate in road construction was examined in a study [40]. The results of the study show that marble waste possesses good chemical composition and the physical and mechanical properties that make it suitable as an aggregate for road construction. Nevertheless, there is currently little usage of marble waste in rigid pavement materials, and more study is required to completely understand the performance of this material. This study aims to evaluate the mechanical and durability properties of marble waste-modified rigid pavement material. The aim of the study will be achieved through the following objectives: conducting preliminary analysis on the aggregate used for the study; determining the mechanical and durability properties of rigid pavement produced with marble waste; and comparing the mechanical and durability properties of rigid pavement produced with marble waste with those of conventional rigid pavement. The study is the first comprehensive assessment of marble waste’s synergistic impact on early durability and strength in rigid pavements. The study contributes to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure) and 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Materials

The pictures of marble waste, quarry dust, and gravel used for this study are presented in Figure 1. The materials used in this study consisted of the Nigerian Dangote Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with a strength class of 42.5 MPa, which served as the binder. The fine aggregate employed was quarry dust, characterized by a size range of 0–4.75 mm and a specific gradation that conformed to standard specifications. Quarry dust, a by-product of the quarrying process, was selected for its potential to enhance the workability and strength of the concrete. The coarse aggregates used were gravel and marble waste, with a size range of 4.75–20 mm and a gradation that met the required standards. The gravel provided the necessary bulk and strength to the concrete, while its size and gradation contributed to the overall texture and performance of the mixture. The combination of these materials was utilized to produce concrete samples for the study, with the specific characteristics of each component influencing the resulting properties of the concrete.

2.2. Research Design

The concrete mix design ratio of 1:2:4 was used to produce the concrete samples for the study. The concrete mix design ratio of 1:2:4 refers to the proportion of cement, quarry dust (fine aggregate), and coarse aggregate used to produce the concrete samples. This ratio indicates that for every 1 part of cement, 2 parts of sand, and 4 parts of coarse aggregate were used. A water-cement ratio of 0.5 was used to produce the concrete samples that were tested in the study. The mix proportion used for the study comprises a control mix (a standard concrete mix without marble waste) and modified mixes (produced by replacing part of the coarse aggregate with marble waste at varying percentages of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50%). Table 1 presents the mix proportions used to produce the different concrete mixes.
The samples were prepared according to ASTM C39 [41] (with modifications to sample shape and size) and cast into molds of 70 mm × 70 mm × 70 mm, as shown in Figure 2a. Although the ASTM C39 specifically mentions cylindrical specimens, it is commonly used for testing concrete cubes as well, with adjustments made for the different sample shape. The fresh concrete samples were presented in Figure 2b, while the demolded samples after 24 h of casting were presented in Figure 2c. The concrete samples were cured in a water bath, a process that involves submerging the samples in a temperature-controlled tank of water, typically maintained between 20 °C and 25 °C (68 °F to 77 °F), to ensure a consistent and humid environment. The water bath curing technique helps provide the qualities of concrete that are necessary for its performance in a variety of applications by preserving ideal conditions.

2.3. Preliminary Analysis

Samples were carefully collected and taken to the laboratory for analysis and reporting. Impact Test for both coarse aggregate and marble waste sieved using sieve size 14 to 10. Samples used for the impact test were the materials retained in sieve 10. An aggregate impact test was conducted for gravel and marble waste. A specific gravity test was conducted on the gravel and marble waste. A slump test was carried out on the concrete mix samples to assess their workability.

2.4. Mechanical and Durability Tests

A dry density test was carried out according to ASTM C138 [42] using a weighing balance as shown in Figure 3a. A compressive strength test was performed according to ASTM C39 using a Universal Testing machine, as shown in Figure 3b. A total of 36 samples were produced (18 samples for 7 days and 18 samples for 28 days curing). The test samples were cured at 7 and 28 days before crushing. The durability test carried out in this study is a water absorption test, which was carried out according to ASTM C642 [43]. It was carried out on the samples after 28 days of curing. The water absorption test samples were dried to a steady weight before immersion in water. The samples were weighed and soaked in a water bath for 48 h, after which the samples were weighed, and the absorption test result was calculated using the weight of the sample before and after soaking for 48 h. The water absorption test set-up is presented in Figure 3c.

3. Results

3.1. Preliminary Test Results

The results of the preliminary tests conducted on the materials used for this study include aggregate impact value tests, specific gravity, and sieve analysis.

3.1.1. Coarse Aggregate (Gravel) Impact Value Test Results

The aggregate impact value shall not exceed 45 percent by weight for aggregates used for concrete and 30 percent by weight for concrete for wearing surfaces, such as runways, roads, and pavements. The average impact value obtained for the gravel is 24.48% as shown in Table 2, which did not exceed the maximum 30% recommended for concrete.

3.1.2. Coarse Aggregate (Marble Waste) Impact Test Results

The average impact value obtained for marble waste is 11.92% as shown in Table 3, which did not exceed the maximum 30% recommended for concrete. This indicates that marble waste has higher resistance to impact compared to the gravel, with an impact value of 24.48%.

3.1.3. Specific Gravity for Coarse Aggregates Test Results

The average specific gravity obtained for gravel and marble waste was 2.66 and 2.65, respectively, as shown in Table 4, and both fall within the acceptable standard range of 2.5–3 stipulated by ASTM C127-88 [44]. The specific gravity of gravel and marble waste is similar, making marble waste a promising replacement for gravel.

3.1.4. Abrasion Test Results

The abrasion test for the coarse aggregate (gravel) was performed according to ASTM C131/C131M [45]. The results of the abrasion test for gravel and marble waste aggregates are presented in Table 5. In total, 27.47% and 24.31% were obtained as the abrasion test results for gravel and marble waste, respectively, and both fall within acceptable limits of a maximum of 30%.

3.1.5. Sieve Analysis Test Results

A sieve analysis was conducted on the fine aggregate used for this evaluation using ASTM C136/C136M-19 [46]. The particle size distribution of the fine aggregate (quarry dust) used for this study is presented in Figure 4. The graph shows that the quarry dust has a uniformity coefficient (Cu) of 9.0, with a curvature coefficient (Cc) of 1.00. Hence, quarry dust is classified as uniformly graded.
The strength, durability, and workability of the aggregate in concrete can all be impacted by this particle size distribution. The particle sizes of D10, D50, and D90 are 90 µm, 350 µm, and 1500 µm, respectively. The coarse aggregate’s particle size distribution shows a wide variety of particle sizes. In particular, the D10 value of 90 µm indicates a small proportion of fine particles because only 10% of the aggregate particles are smaller than 90 µm. A moderate-sized aggregate is indicated by the D50 value of 350 µm, which shows the median particle size with 50% of the particles being smaller and 50% being bigger. Additionally, 90% of the aggregate particles are less than 1500 µm, according to the D90 value of 1500 µm, indicating a considerable presence of coarse particles. Overall, this distribution points to a well-graded aggregate with a wide range of particle sizes, which may enhance packing and stability in concrete applications.

3.1.6. Slump Test Results

Each of the concrete sample mix’s workability was assessed according to the ASTM C143 [47] slump cone test, and the results are presented in Table 6. The workability of the concrete mixture, as indicated by the slump value, decreased significantly with increasing percentages of marble waste replacement. The control mixture (0% marble waste) exhibited a slump value of 83 mm, indicating a workable mix. However, as the marble waste replacement increased to 10%, the slump value drastically reduced to 22 mm, suggesting a decrease in workability. Further increases in marble waste replacement led to continued decreases in slump value, with the 50% replacement mixture showing a slump value of only 2 mm, indicating a very stiff and unworkable mix. This trend suggests that the incorporation of marble waste reduces the workability of the concrete, likely due to the increased surface area and water absorption characteristics of the marble waste particles, which may require adjustments to the mix design or the use of admixtures to maintain adequate workability.

3.2. Mechanical Test Results

The mechanical tests conducted in this study include dry density and compressive strength tests.

3.2.1. Dry Density Test Results

Dry density test results obtained from the study are presented in Figure 5. As the percentage replacement of marble waste increases, the dry density gradually decreases from 2780 kg/m3 to 2590 kg/m3 for 0% and 50% marble replacement. 2780 kg/m3 was obtained as the dry density of the conventional rigid pavement material sample, and it is close to the dry density of the sample produced with 10% marble waste replacement, which is 2770 kg/m3, suggesting that up to 10% marble waste can be incorporated without significantly affecting the material’s density. Reduced dry density results from higher marble waste replacement levels (over 10%), which may have an impact on the material’s performance, strength, and durability in pavement applications.

3.2.2. Compressive Test Results

The results of the compressive strength tests for the conventional and marble waste-modified concrete are presented in Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 8. There is an increase in the 7-day compressive strength on the addition of 10% marble waste, but the strength decreases on further addition of marble waste due to decreased workability, as shown in Figure 6. Early strength gain was observed for the sample with 10% replacement at 7 days due to the ability of the marble waste to serve as filler in the concrete mix. Upon addition of 20, 30, 40, and 50% of marble waste, the 7-day compressive strength decreases due to reduced workability.
As the percentage replacement of marble waste increases, the 28-day compressive strength decreases, as presented in Figure 7. The observed decrease in the compressive strength is due to the reduced workability of the concrete resulting from the smoothness of the marble waste aggregates. The smoothness of the marble waste aggregates results in decreased cohesion (binding) of the aggregates of the concrete mix, leading to reduced compressive strength. Additionally, the results of the dry density shown in Figure 5 indicate that an increase in the dry density results in an increase in compressive strength, as shown in Figure 7.
Comparison of the 7-day and 28-day compressive strength indicates that replacing the gravel with marble waste resulted in early strength gain, as shown in Figure 8. The results show that by 7 days, the samples containing marble waste have gained more than 90% of their strength, making them suitable for use in conditions that require early strength gain. However, the control mix indicates gradual strength gain as it gains significant strength after 28 days, when compared to the 7-day strength. As the percentage replacement of marble waste increases, the compressive strength increases.

3.3. Durability Test Results

Water Absorption Test

Water Absorption Test was carried out to ascertain the durability of the test samples, and the results are presented in Figure 9. As the percentage of marble waste increases, the water absorption reduces. Conventional concrete samples have higher water absorption compared to the concrete samples produced with marble waste. Lower water absorption denotes better durability. This implies that rigid pavement produced using marble waste will be more durable.

3.4. Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy Results

Based on the results of the compressive strength test, some samples were selected for scanning electron microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) conducted using SEM manufactured by Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA), and the results are presented in Figure 10, Figure 11, Figure 12, Figure 13, Figure 14 and Figure 15. Figure 10 presents the SEM/EDS of a conventional concrete sample cured for 7 days. The SEM image shows the presence of pores.
Figure 11 presents the SEM/EDS results of the marble waste modified sample produced using 10% marble and cured for 7 days. The image indicates the attribute of cementitious material containing quartz and granite. Figure 12 presents SEM/EDS of the sample produced using 50% of marble waste and cured for 7 days. The image indicates a dense material structure, which could be due to the increased percentage of marble waste. As the calcium content, which contributes to the cementation/hydration process, reduces with the addition of more marble waste, the compressive strength decreases. This is in line with the obtained compressive test results, as shown in Figure 7. SEM/EDS test results of MW0 (0% marble) cured for 28 days are presented in Figure 13. The EDS indicates a high composition of pozzolanic elements (silicon and aluminum). Higher calcium content observed in the EDS of MW10 (10% marble) for samples cured for 28 days, as shown in Figure 14, is responsible for the cementation/hydration process and supports the higher compressive strength obtained for the same sample at 28 days of curing as presented in Figure 6. Figure 15 presents the SEM/EDS result of the sample produced with 50% marble waste cured for 28 days. As the calcium content, which contributes to the cementation/hydration process, reduces with the addition of more marble waste, the compressive strength decreases. This is in line with the obtained compressive test results, as shown in Figure 7.

4. Discussion

The dry density test’s findings have a number of effects on the rigid pavement material’s characteristics and functionality. The findings show that dry density and compressive strength are directly correlated, indicating that materials with higher dry densities also typically have higher compressive strengths. In order to guarantee the required compressive strength, this correlation suggests that material design should concentrate on reaching the ideal dry density. The durability of rigid pavement material may be impacted by the decrease in dry density that occurs with an increase in marble waste content. This could result in decreased resistance to environmental degradation. A trade-off between compressive strength and weight reduction may be necessary when using leftover marble in rigid pavement material, depending on the particular application and specifications.
Some important implications for the use of marble waste in concrete are revealed by the compressive strength test results. Over 90 percent of the strength of the samples is gained in 7 days when 10 percent marble waste is added. For applications that demand rapid strength development, marble waste-modified concrete is therefore appropriate. The ideal marble waste content seems to be around 10% since additional additions result in lower compressive strength because the marble waste aggregates become less smooth and workable. The concrete mix’s cohesiveness is weakened by the smoothness of the marble waste aggregates, which results in a lower compressive strength at higher replacement percentages. The strength gain patterns of concrete modified with marble waste differ from those of conventional concrete. Marble waste-modified concrete reaches its maximum strength in the first seven days, whereas conventional concrete gains strength gradually over the course of 28 days. Based on these findings, marble waste may be a feasible option. Based on these results, waste marble may be a good addition to concrete, especially in situations where early strength gain is advantageous. The ideal quantity of marble waste must be carefully chosen, though, to obtain the required compressive strength.
The performance and longevity of rigid pavement materials made from waste marble are significantly impacted by the water absorption test results. The increased longevity and decreased water absorption of concrete modified with marble waste imply that rigid pavements made with marble waste will be more resilient to weather conditions like rain, snow, and temperature changes. Rigid pavements made from marble waste may require less maintenance due to their increased resilience to water-related damage and durability, which would save money and improve sustainability. By using waste marble to make rigid pavement, waste materials are valued, the environmental effect of waste disposal is lessened, and natural resources are preserved. In line with international sustainability goals and initiatives, the production of robust and sustainable rigid pavement materials from marble waste helps to build sustainable infrastructure.
The analysis of the concrete samples, both conventional and modified from marble waste, using Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM/EDS), yields important information about their microstructure and elemental makeup. The following are some implications of these discoveries for comprehending the materials’ durability and mechanical characteristics:
Microstructural Implications: Comparing the conventional concrete sample (Figure 9) to the samples modified with marble waste, the presence of pores may suggest a lower density and possibly a lower mechanical strength. The 50% marble waste sample’s dense structure (Figure 11) indicates that the reduced porosity has improved mechanical qualities, including increased compressive strength. The presence of granite and quartz in the samples that were modified using marble waste (Figure 10) suggests that the waste is aiding in the creation of cementitious compounds, which can enhance the material’s mechanical qualities.
Implications of Elemental Composition: Calcium content: The cementation/hydration process, which underpins the sample’s higher compressive strength, is caused by the higher calcium content seen in the 10% marble waste sample (Figure 13). This implies that adding the ideal quantity of marble waste can improve the material’s mechanical qualities. The conventional concrete sample (Figure 12) contains pozzolanic elements (silicon and aluminum), which suggests that these elements are aiding in the creation of cementitious compounds. Nevertheless, it seems that adding marble waste modifies the elemental composition, which affects the mechanical properties.
Mechanical Property Implications: The SEM/EDS results corroborate the results of the compressive strength test, showing that while adding marble waste can enhance the material’s mechanical qualities, doing so excessively can result in a decrease in compressive strength. According to the findings, adding marble waste can improve the material’s mechanical qualities to a certain extent (roughly 10%), while adding too much can result in worse performance.
Durability Implications: The marble waste-modified samples’ dense material structure indicates increased durability as a result of decreased porosity, which may enhance resistance to environmental deterioration. The marble waste-modified samples’ ideal elemental composition and the presence of cementitious compounds may help to increase resistance to degradation.

5. Conclusions

This study has evaluated the mechanical and durability properties of marble waste-modified rigid pavement material to assess its potential as a sustainable and durable material for infrastructure construction. The following conclusions were made from the findings of the study:
i.
The specific gravity of gravel (2.66) and marble waste (2.65) is similar, making marble waste a promising replacement for gravel.
ii.
The impact value of 24.48% and 11.92% obtained for gravel and marble waste, respectively, falls within acceptable limits. The impact value results indicate that marble waste has higher resistance to impact compared to the gravel, with an impact value of 24.48%. This implies that producing rigid pavement materials with marble waste will result in higher durability of the constructed road pavement.
iii.
As the percentage of marble waste increases, the water absorption reduces. Conventional concrete samples have higher water absorption compared to the concrete samples produced with marble waste. This implies that rigid pavement produced using marble waste will be more durable.
iv.
There is an increase in the 7-day compressive strength on the addition of 10% marble waste, but the strength decreases on further addition of marble waste due to decreased workability.
v.
Early strength gain was observed for the sample with 10% replacement at 7 days due to the ability of the marble waste to serve as filler in the concrete mix.
vi.
As the percentage replacement of marble waste increases, the 28-day compressive strength decreases. The observed decrease in the compressive strength is due to the reduced workability of the concrete resulting from the smoothness of the marble waste aggregates. The smoothness of the marble waste aggregates results in decreased cohesion (binding) of the concrete mix, leading to a reduction in compressive strength.
vii.
Higher calcium content observed in the EDS of MW10 is responsible for the cementation/hydration process. It supports the higher compressive strength result obtained for the same sample at 28 days of curing.
viii.
Comparison of the 7-day and 28-day compressive strength indicates that replacing the gravel with marble waste resulted in early strength gain, making them suitable for use in conditions that require early strength gain.
Overall, the study’s conclusions have important implications for the building sector since they support sustainable building methods and offer a possible remedy for the handling of marble waste that pollutes the environment. By using rigid pavement material modified from marble waste, infrastructure construction can have a less negative environmental impact while also offering a long-lasting and sustainable building material. Further investigation into the long-term performance of rigid pavement material created from marble waste in various building scenarios and conditions is advised, considering the study’s findings. The results of the study can also help support sustainable building practices in the sector and drive the creation of new norms and recommendations for the use of waste materials in construction. Future research will focus on conducting supplementary durability assessments, including resistance to freeze–thaw cycles, chloride ion penetration, and sulfate attack, to further evaluate the study material’s performance and longevity.

Author Contributions

I.I.O.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing—Reviewing and Editing Supervision; M.S.N.: Methodology, Investigation, Writing—Original draft preparation. K.Y.: Investigation, Methodology. A.S.: Investigation and Writing—Reviewing and Editing; A.D.: Project management. M.U.K.: Visualization, Validation. A.P.O.: Writing—Reviewing and Editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author [I.I.O.] upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

References

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Figure 1. Materials used for the study.
Figure 1. Materials used for the study.
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Figure 2. (a) Molds. (b) Fresh Concrete Sample. (c) Samples After 24 h of Casting.
Figure 2. (a) Molds. (b) Fresh Concrete Sample. (c) Samples After 24 h of Casting.
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Figure 3. (a) Density Sample Weighing. (b) Compressive Strength Test Set. (c) Water Absorption Test Set-up.
Figure 3. (a) Density Sample Weighing. (b) Compressive Strength Test Set. (c) Water Absorption Test Set-up.
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Figure 4. Particle Size Distribution Curve of Fine Aggregate (Quarry Dust).
Figure 4. Particle Size Distribution Curve of Fine Aggregate (Quarry Dust).
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Figure 5. Dry Density Test Results of Samples Cured for 28 Days.
Figure 5. Dry Density Test Results of Samples Cured for 28 Days.
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Figure 6. Concrete Compressive Test Results of Samples Cured for 7 Days.
Figure 6. Concrete Compressive Test Results of Samples Cured for 7 Days.
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Figure 7. Concrete Compressive Test Results of Samples Cured for 28 Days.
Figure 7. Concrete Compressive Test Results of Samples Cured for 28 Days.
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Figure 8. Comparison of Concrete Compressive Test Results of Samples Cured for 7 and 28 Days.
Figure 8. Comparison of Concrete Compressive Test Results of Samples Cured for 7 and 28 Days.
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Figure 9. Water Absorption Test Results of Samples Cured for 28 Days.
Figure 9. Water Absorption Test Results of Samples Cured for 28 Days.
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Figure 10. SEM/EDS Test Results for 0% sample (MW0) cured for 7 days.
Figure 10. SEM/EDS Test Results for 0% sample (MW0) cured for 7 days.
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Figure 11. SEM/EDS Test Results for 10% sample (MW10) cured for 7 days.
Figure 11. SEM/EDS Test Results for 10% sample (MW10) cured for 7 days.
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Figure 12. SEM/EDS Test Results for 50% sample (MW50) cured for 7 days.
Figure 12. SEM/EDS Test Results for 50% sample (MW50) cured for 7 days.
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Figure 13. SEM/EDS Test Results for 0% sample (MW0) cured for 28 days.
Figure 13. SEM/EDS Test Results for 0% sample (MW0) cured for 28 days.
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Figure 14. SEM/EDS Test Results for 10% sample (MW10) cured for 28 days.
Figure 14. SEM/EDS Test Results for 10% sample (MW10) cured for 28 days.
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Figure 15. SEM/EDS Test Results for 50% sample (MW50) cured for 28 days.
Figure 15. SEM/EDS Test Results for 50% sample (MW50) cured for 28 days.
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Table 1. Mix Proportions.
Table 1. Mix Proportions.
Sample Names% ReplacementCement (kg/m3)Marble Waste (kg/m3)Gravel (kg/m3)Quarry Dust (kg/m3)
MW00343.170.001372.68686.34
MW1010343.17137.271235.41686.34
MW2020343.17274.541098.14686.34
MW3030343.17411.80960.88686.34
MW4040343.17549.07823.61686.34
MW5050343.17686.34686.34686.34
Table 2. Coarse Aggregate (Gravel) Impact Value Test Results.
Table 2. Coarse Aggregate (Gravel) Impact Value Test Results.
Test 1Test 2
Empty Impact Pot Weight (g)788.68788.68
Empty Pan Weight (g)329.88329.88
Empty Sieve Weight (g)394.41394.41
Aggregate with Impact Pot Weight (g)1112.951110.00
Aggregate Weight (g)324.30321.32
Retained + Sieve (g)636.54638.71
Passing + Pan (g)411.59406.24
Weight of Retained (g)242.13244.30
Weight of Passing (g)81.7176.36
Impact value (%)25.2023.76
Average Impact value (%)24.48
Table 3. Coarse Aggregate (Marble waste) Impact Value Test Results.
Table 3. Coarse Aggregate (Marble waste) Impact Value Test Results.
Parameters MeasuredTest 1Test 2
Empty Pot Impact Weight (g)787.50787.50
Empty Pan Weight (g)226.00226.00
Empty Sieve Weight (g)393.00393.00
Aggregate with Impact Pot Weight (g)1142.001142.00
Marble Waste Weight (g)354.50354.50
Weight of Retained (g)317.50311.50
Retained + Sieve (g)710.50704.50
Passing + Pan (g)262.50274.10
Weight of Passing (g)36.5048.10
Impact value (%)10.3013.57
Average Impact value (%)11.92
Table 4. Specific Gravity for Coarse Aggregates Test Results.
Table 4. Specific Gravity for Coarse Aggregates Test Results.
Parameters MeasuredGravelMarble Waste
Aggregate weight (g)2000.002000.00
Aggregate Weight with pan (g)1978.001978.00
Weight of pan (g)583.50444.50
Weight of Aggregate + Bucket in Water (A1) (g)2059.002456.00
Weight of Bucket Suspended in Water (A2) (g)566.50566.50
Weight of Saturated Aggregate in Water (A) = (A1 − A2) (g)1452.501489.50
Weight of Saturated Surface Dry Aggregate (B) (g)1965.002004.00
Weight of Oven-Dry Aggregate (C) (g)1364.501361.50
Specific gravity = C/B − A2.662.65
Table 5. Abrasion Test Results for Gravel and Marble Waste.
Table 5. Abrasion Test Results for Gravel and Marble Waste.
MeasurementsGravelMarble Waste
Sample weight (g)50005000
Weight retained in sieve after abrasion (g)2898.002846.00
Weight of passing after abrasion (g)2102.002154.00
Abrasion value (%)27.4724.31
Table 6. Samples slump test results.
Table 6. Samples slump test results.
Percentage Marble Waste Replacement (%)Slump Value (mm)
083
1022
2013
309
405
502
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MDPI and ACS Style

Obianyo, I.I.; Nwaforcha, M.S.; Yusuf, K.; Sanusi, A.; Dayyabu, A.; Kolo, M.U.; Onwualu, A.P. Evaluation of the Mechanical and Durability Properties of Marble Waste-Modified Rigid Pavement Material. Buildings 2025, 15, 4159. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15224159

AMA Style

Obianyo II, Nwaforcha MS, Yusuf K, Sanusi A, Dayyabu A, Kolo MU, Onwualu AP. Evaluation of the Mechanical and Durability Properties of Marble Waste-Modified Rigid Pavement Material. Buildings. 2025; 15(22):4159. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15224159

Chicago/Turabian Style

Obianyo, Ifeyinwa Ijeoma, Maurice Simon Nwaforcha, Kudu Yusuf, Abdulganiyu Sanusi, Abubakar Dayyabu, Musa Umar Kolo, and Azikiwe Peter Onwualu. 2025. "Evaluation of the Mechanical and Durability Properties of Marble Waste-Modified Rigid Pavement Material" Buildings 15, no. 22: 4159. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15224159

APA Style

Obianyo, I. I., Nwaforcha, M. S., Yusuf, K., Sanusi, A., Dayyabu, A., Kolo, M. U., & Onwualu, A. P. (2025). Evaluation of the Mechanical and Durability Properties of Marble Waste-Modified Rigid Pavement Material. Buildings, 15(22), 4159. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15224159

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