Reconciling Urban Density with Daylight Equity in Sloped Cities: A Case for Adaptive Setbacks in Amman, Jordan
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Importance of Daylight in Urban Environments
2.1.1. Health and Psychological Benefits
2.1.2. Energy Efficiency
2.1.3. Social Equity
2.2. Urban Regulations and Daylight Access
2.2.1. Global Perspectives
2.2.2. Middle Eastern Context
2.2.3. Amman’s Regulatory Framework
2.3. Critique of Building Code No. 67, 1979
2.4. Shadow Analysis and Simulation Tools
2.4.1. Shadow Dynamics
2.4.2. Simulation Tools
2.4.3. Topographical Considerations
2.5. Challenges in Sloped Urban Areas
2.5.1. Topographical Constraints
2.5.2. Basement Usage
2.5.3. Street Orientation and Width
2.6. Gaps in Existing Research
2.6.1. Lack of Slope-Sensitive Studies
2.6.2. Policy-Relevant Research
3. Methodology
3.1. Study Area
3.2. Data Collection
3.3. Simulation Tools and Parameters
3.3.1. Slope Calculation
3.3.2. Daylight Factor (DF)
3.3.3. Spatial Daylight Autonomy (sDA)
3.4. Analysis Techniques
Validation and Limitations
4. Decision
4.1. Preliminary Site Visit
4.2. Basement Assessment
4.3. Street Width Measurement
4.4. Topography and Slope Calculation
- Flat terrain (0%);
- Moderate slope (15%);
- Steep slope (20%);
- Very steep slope (30%).
4.5. Data Integration into Revit
4.6. Digital Modeling
4.7. Shadow Analysis
5. Conclusions
- Residential Zone A: When buildings are arranged back to back facing south, the distance between them generally allows daylight to enter, except during winter when shadows cover the lower building. However, when buildings are arranged side by side facing south, daylight access is often obstructed throughout the year, as the distance between blocks is only 10 m—less than in the back-to-back arrangement.
- Residential Zones B, C, and D: In back-to-back arrangements facing south, daylight is frequently blocked for much of the year. The situation worsens in side-by-side arrangements, where daylight access is significantly reduced.
6. Recommendations
6.1. Dynamic Setbacks Tied to Slope Percentages
6.2. Restrictions on Basement Habitation
6.3. Optimized Street Orientation
6.4. Increase Side Setbacks for Land at Higher Elevations
6.5. Adjust Rear Setbacks Based on Building Height and Solar Access
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
No. | Slope | No. of Floors | No. of Basements | Side Setback | Side Setback | Front Setback | Rear Setback | Width of Streets | South Elev. 21/3 | South Elev. 21/9 | South Elev. 21/12 | Contour | Height of Slope (X) |
Results According to Appendix B | |||||||||||||
1 | 5.2% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 3 * | 4 | 6 | 32 5 | No | No | Yes | Parallel to street | 2.5 |
2 | 1% | 4 | 2 | 4.8 | 4.5 * | 4.01 | 7.6 | 32 5 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes Yes Yes | Parallel to street | 0.5 |
3 | 21.4% | 4 | 4 | 4.86 | 4 | 4 | 6.15 | 32 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes Yes Yes | Parallel to street | 4.4 |
4 | 15.5% | 4 | 4 | 4.5 | 4.36 | 4 | 6 | 32 | No | No | Yes No No | Perpendicular to street | 3.2 |
5 | 9.2% | 1 | 0 | 6 | 3.61 * | 7.94 | 5.87 | 8.15 6 | No | No | No No Yes | Parallel to street | 4.5 |
6 | 18.3% | 1 | 0 | 6.47 | 12.09 | 12.4 | 3.68 | 11 6 | No | No | No No Yes | Parallel to street | 8.9 |
7 | 20.5% | 1 | 0 | 4.12 | 4 | 9.16 | 7.34 | 10.85 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 10 |
8 | 13.7% | 1 | 0 | 4.86 | 6.96 | 12.04 | 12.45 | 11.87 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 6.5 |
9 | 13.8% | 2 | 0 | 4.45 | 6.03 | 7.35 | 15.38 | 13.49 | No | No | Yes No No | Parallel to street | 6.3 |
10 | 21.5% | 2 | 1 | 28.39 | 8.18 | 5.25 | 5.65 | 14.9 | No No No | No No No | Yes No No | Perpendicular to street | 8 |
11 | 0.9% | 2 | 1 | 8.38 | 6.82 * | 5.41 | 8.39 | 12.32 4 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes Yes Yes | Perpendicular to street | 0.3 |
12 | 5.6% | 2 | 1 | 3.89 | 4.84 * | 3.08 | 5.97 | 19.99 4 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes Yes No | Perpendicular to street | 1.7 |
13 | 3.6% | 3 | 1 | 6.5 | 10.43 | 3.85 | 6 | 41.28 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes Yes Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1 |
14 | 4.7% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 11.98 | No | No | Yes No No | Parallel to street | 1.3 |
15 | 0% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 18.47 4.30 | No | No | Yes Yes No | Flat | 0 |
16 | 11% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4.67 * | 4 | 6 | 22.98 4.09 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 3.1 |
17 | 15.9% | 5 | 1 | 3.41 | 3.91 | 3.9 | 6 | 12.13 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 4.5 |
18 | 33.6% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 3.8 | 3 | 6 | 23.68 | No Yes No | No | Yes Yes No | Parallel to street | 8 |
19 | 16.2% | 4 | 4 | 4 * | 4 * | 4 * | 4 ** | 20.35 30.19 40.46 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No No | Parallel to street | 4.4 |
20 | 11.8% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4.48 | 6 | 30.13 | No | No | Yes No No | Perpendicular to street | 3.1 |
21 | 7.5% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 30.10 | No | No | Yes No No | Perpendicular to street | 2 |
22 | 2.3% | 3 | 1 | 4.64 | 4.03 | 4 | 6.14 | 30 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No No | Perpendicular to street | 0.6 |
23 | 0% | 5 | 4 | 4.03 | 4.34 * | 4 | 6 | 30 4.1 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes Yes No | Flat | 0 |
24 | 41.2% | 4 | 3 | 4 ** | 4 * | 6.54 | 4 | 20 13.5 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 11.7 |
25 | 26% | 4 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 * | 20 13.5 | No Yes No | No Yes No | Yes | Parallel to street | 12 |
26 | 23.9% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 20.4 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 6.7 |
27 | 17.5% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 23.5 | Yes Yes No | Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 4.7 |
28 | 25.7% | 4 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 44 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes Yes Yes | Parallel to street | 7.2 |
29 | 23.8% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 5.8 | 23 4 | No Yes No | No Yes No | Yes | Parallel to street | 6.7 |
30 | 17.4% | 1 | 3 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 12 4 | No | No | Yes No | Perpendicular to street | 4.9 |
31 | 11.3% | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 12 4 | No | No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3.2 |
32 | 21.7% | 4 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 20.3 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 6.1 |
33 | 10.5% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | No | No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3 |
34 | 4.7% | 2 | 0 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 12 4 | No | No | No Yes Yes | Parallel to street | 1.4 |
35 | 21.3% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 20 4 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 6.8 |
36 | 7.7% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 4 | No | No | Yes Yes No | Perpendicular to street | 2.4 |
37 | 0% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Flat | 0 |
38 | 0% | 1 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Flat | 0 |
39 | 3.9% | 4 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1 |
40 | 5% | 1 | 1 | 4 | 6 * | 4.1 | 4.3 | 13.5 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 1.2 |
41 ** | 35% | 4 | 1 | 5.6 | 10.9 | 8.4 | 6 | 12 | No | No | Yes | Parallel to street | 11.3 |
42 ** | 16.4% | 2 | 0 | 5 | 4 | 10.7 | 6 | 12 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 6 |
43 ** | 23.4% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4.2 * | 4 | 6.8 * | 16.5 12 12 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 7.3 |
44 | 29.4% | 2 | 0 | 9.4 | 5.2 * | 10.3 | 4.3 * | 17.3 12.7 8.4 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 10.4 |
45 | 23.3% | 2 | 0 | 4 | 4 * | 7.4 | 11 * | 15 12.7 8.4 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 8.3 |
46 ** | 21.1% | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 * | 18.8 13 8.3 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 7.5 |
47 | 9.6% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 16.7 | 4 * | 29.6 12.6 12 | No No Yes | No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 2.9 |
48 | 1.7% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 0.5 |
49 | 0% | 2 | 0 | 9 | 7.6 | 5.6 | 5.5 | 12 | Yes No No | No | Yes | Flat | 0 |
50 ** | 0% | 4 | 1 | 6 | 10 * | 11 | 4 | 12 | Yes No No | No | Yes No No | Flat | 0 |
51 ** | 0% | 3 | 1 | 4 | 5.5 | 5.8 | 6.9 | 12 | No | No | Yes No No | Flat | 0 |
52 ** | 2.3% | 1 | 0 | 4 | 5.5 | 5.8 | 6.9 | 12 | No | No | Yes No No | Perpendicular to street | 0.7 |
53 ** | 1.7% | 2 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | No | No | Yes No No | Perpendicular to street | 0.5 |
54 | 0% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12.6 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No No | Flat | 0 |
55 | 9.4% | 2 | 0 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 * | 12.6 14.8 33 | No No No | No No No | Yes No No | Perpendicular to street | 2.7 |
56 | 10.3% | 5 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14.8 | No Yes No | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 3.4 |
57 ** | 16% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 16 20 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 5.2 |
58 | 23.3% | 5 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 20 8 | Yes | Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 6.1 |
59 | 16.4% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 12.5 17.3 | Yes No No | No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.7 |
60 | 3.7% | 4 | 2 | 7.5 | 4.9 | 4 | 6 | 17.8 | Yes | No No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.3 |
61 ** | 16.2% | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 15 | 4 | 16.7 16.5 | Yes No No | Yes Yes No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 5 |
62 ** | 17.1% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16.5 | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 5.2 |
63 ** | 20.9% | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 17.3 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 7.2 |
64 ** | 21.2% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 17.3 15.5 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 7.2 |
65 | 13.2% | 4 | 1 | 9 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 18 12.6 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.4 |
66 | 20% | 3 | 0 | 4 | 4 * | 10.6 | 4 | 15.5 15.3 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 7 |
67 | 16.6% | 3 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 15.5 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 5.4 |
68 | 20.1% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 15.5 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 6.7 |
69 | 6.5% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 11 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.2 |
70 | 4.7% | 6 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 11 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.6 |
71 | 6.6% | 2 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 11 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.2 |
72 | 10.6% | 3 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 11 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3.5 |
73 | 10.4% | 2 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3.4 |
74 | 9.9% | 3 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 15.5 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 3.6 |
75 | 13.8% | 3 | 1 | 4 | 7.8 * | 10.3 | 4 | 15.5 13 | No | No | Yes No No | Parallel to street | 4.9 |
76 | 12.4% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 6.7 * | 6.7 | 4 | 13 8 | No | No | Yes No No | Parallel to street | 4.3 |
77 | 13.7% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 8 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 4.7 |
78 | 9.2% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 8 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 3.3 |
79 ** | 16.8% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 * | 13 17 12 | No | No | Yes | Parallel to street | 7.8 |
80 ** | 13.6% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 3.5 |
81 ** | 14.7% | 2 | 1 | 4 | 16.4 * | 8 | 4 | 14.8 12 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes | Parallel to street | 3.8 |
82 | 13.1% | 2 | 1 | 9 | 10 | 4 | 6 | 14.8 | No | No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 5.2 |
83 | 9% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 10 * | 4 | 4 * | 4 16 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.8 |
84 | 9.8% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2 |
85 | 16.3% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 12 4 4 | No | No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3.4 |
86 | 11.3% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 16 4 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3.4 |
87 | 6.8% | 2 | 0 | 6.6 | 7.5 | 12.1 | 6.5 * | 16 4 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.1 |
88 ** | 11.7% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | - | 16 12 | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 3.4 |
89 | 16.3% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 11 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.4 |
90 | 19% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 49.3 4 | No No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 5.9 |
91 | 10.8% | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 30.5 | No | No | No | Perpendicular to street | 2.8 |
92 | 14.6% | 3 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 30.5 | Yes No No | Yes No No | No No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3.9 |
93 | 16% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 17 | No | No | Yes | Parallel to street | 4.1 |
94 | 32.7% | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 20 4 | No | No | Yes No No | Parallel to street | 9.8 |
95 | 34.8% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 16 4 | No | No | Yes No No | Parallel to street | 10.3 |
96 | 29.9% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 20 4 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 8.9 |
97 | 28.3% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 16 4 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 8.4 |
98 | 27.4% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 24.3 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 8.2 |
99 | 23.2% | 4 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 17.7 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 6.9 |
100 | 23.1% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 34 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 6.9 |
101 | 24.3% | 4 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 7.2 |
102 | 21.1% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 20 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 6.3 |
103 | 25.9% | 2 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 7.7 |
104 | 19.7% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 20 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 5.9 |
105 | 27.2% | 3 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 30 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 7.4 |
106 | 30.1% | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 16.7 4 | No | No | No No Yes | Parallel to street | 8.6 |
107 | 32.9% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 13 4 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | No No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.9 |
108 | 8.8% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 4 | No | No | No No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.4 |
109 | 29.5% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 12.7 12 | No | No No Yes | No No Yes | Parallel to street | 7.7 |
110 | 26.6% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes Yes No | Yes Yes No | Yes | Parallel to street | 6.9 |
111 ** | 11.6% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 20.2 | No | No | No No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.9 |
112 | 20.8% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | - | 20.2 16 | Yes Yes No | Yes Yes No | Yes | Parallel to street | 6.1 |
113 | 23.9% | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | - | 23 26 | No | No | Yes No No | Parallel to street | 6.1 |
114 | 12% | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | - | 26.6 14 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 3.3 |
115 | 11.4% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14.5 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3.1 |
116 | 21% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14.5 | Yes Yes No | Yes Yes No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 5.7 |
117 | 8% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 14.5 4 | Yes Yes No | Yes Yes No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.2 |
118 | 7.3% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 20 4 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2 |
119 | 15.7% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 20 | Yes Yes No | Yes Yes No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.3 |
120 | 7% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14.1 | No | No | Yes No No | Perpendicular to street | 4.3 |
121 | 9% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14.1 | Yes Yes No | Yes Yes No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.6 |
122 | 22.4% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 14.1 4 | Yes Yes No | Yes Yes No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 6.4 |
123 ** | 10% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 41 4 | No | No | No | Perpendicular to street | 3 |
124 ** | 13.1% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 14 4 | Yes | Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.1 |
125 | 24.6% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 14 4 | Yes | Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 6.9 |
126 | 26.5% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 24.3 | Yes Yes No | Yes Yes No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 7.2 |
127 | 16.3% | 4 | 2 | 4.3 | 4.8 * | 4 | 5.4 | 14.6 4 | No | No | No Yes Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.7 |
128 | 30% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6.3 | 20 4 | No No Yes | No No Yes | No Yes Yes | Parallel to street | 7.8 |
129 | 12.5% | 4 | 1 | 4.2 | 4.8 * | 4 | 5.9 | 14.8 4 | No | No | Yes | Parallel to street | 3.5 |
130 | 20.8% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6.2 | 20 4 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 5.6 |
131 | 7.6% | 4 | 1 | 4.7 | 4.2 * | 4 | 5.8 | 16 4 | No | No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.1 |
132 | 5.9% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 5.6 | 20 4 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.6 |
133 | 1.3% | 4 | 1 | 3.5 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 16 4 | No | No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 0.7 |
134 | 3.9% | 4 | 1 | 4.5 | 4.1 * | 5 | 4 | 20 4 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.3 |
135 | 6.2% | 2 | 0 | 26.4 | 8 | 8 | 29.1 * | 16 20.5 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.4 |
136 | 6.3% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.1 |
137 | 7% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 20 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.6 |
138 | 16.1% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.6 |
139 | 16% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 20 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.9 |
140 | 17.9% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | - | 20 18 | No Yes Yes | No Yes Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 5.2 |
141 | 13.7% | 2 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | - | 23 21 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.1 |
142 | 10.9% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 12 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3.2 |
143 | 14.5% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 14 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.3 |
144 | 12% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes | Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3.6 |
145 | 6.5% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14 | Yes | Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2 |
146 | 5.5% | 2 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12.3 | Yes Yes No | Yes Yes No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.7 |
147 | 5.4% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12.3 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.7 |
148 | 8.6% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12.3 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.6 |
149 | 3.6% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 12 4 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.1 |
150 | 6.3% | 4 | 1 | 5.1 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 12 4 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.9 |
151 | 5.6% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 7.2 | 14.2 4 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.7 |
152 | 3.4% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes | Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1 |
153 | 11.7% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.8 |
154 | 16.8% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 5.5 |
155 | 17.1% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 4 | - | 14.3 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 5.6 |
156 ** | 2% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 12 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 0.5 |
157 ** | 8.5% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 12 12 | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.3 |
158 ** | 2.4% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 0.6 |
159 ** | 4.1% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.1 |
160 ** | 0% | 1 | 1 | 4.1 | 4 | 6.5 | 7 | 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Flat | 0 |
161 ** | 0% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Flat | 0 |
162 ** | 0% | 2 | 0 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 7 | 12 4 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Flat | 0 |
163 ** | 3% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 12 4 | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 0.8 |
164 ** | 0% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 12 4 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Flat | 0 |
165 ** | 0% | 4 | 0 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 5 | 12 4 | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Flat | 0 |
166 ** | 14.7% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 7.2 | 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.5 |
167 ** | 16.9% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 5.1 |
168 ** | 13.2% | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 12 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.7 |
169 ** | 14.8% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 12 12 | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 5.3 |
170 | 0% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 8.7 | 6.5 | 12 12 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes No Yes | Flat | 0 |
171 | 3.6% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 6.7 | 6.5 | 12 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 0.8 |
172 | 0% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes | Flat | 0 |
173 | 5.7% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.3 |
174 | 4.1% | 3 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 0.9 |
175 | 9.3% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.2 |
176 | 9.1% | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 12 4 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 2.9 |
177 | 17.1% | 4 | 1 | 4.7 | 7.4 * | 5.5 | 4 | 22 4 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 6.4 |
178 | 9.5% | 1 | 1 | 5.5 * | 5.5 * | 4 | 4 | 12 4 4 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3 |
179 ** | 25.1% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 12.5 4 | No | No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 7.3 |
180 ** | 8.6% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 13 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.9 |
181 ** | 5.9% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 5.5 * | 4 | 4 | 16 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 1.7 |
182 ** | 5.2% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 21 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.3 |
183 ** | 6.5% | 4 | 1 | 4 * | 4 * | 6 | 9.4 | 31 16 6 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.3 |
184 ** | 4.6% | 4 | 1 | 10 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.1 |
185 ** | 1.7% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 18 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 0.4 |
186 ** | 4% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1 |
187 ** | 10.8% | 3 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3.5 |
188 ** | 13.5% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 4.4 |
189 ** | 10.3% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 16 12 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3.5 |
190 ** | 8.1% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 12 12 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.6 |
191 | 6.4% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | - | 15.6 4 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.5 |
192 ** | 13% | 4 | 1 | 10.4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 4 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Perpendicular to street | 3.2 |
193 ** | 3.6% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 12.5 4 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1 |
194 ** | 17.3% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 12 14 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No No | Perpendicular to street | 4.7 |
195 ** | 3.3% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No No | Perpendicular to street | 0.9 |
196 ** | 4.4% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 5 * | 4 | 4 | 14 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 1.2 |
197 ** | 4.8% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 1.3 |
198 ** | 1.1% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No No | Perpendicular to street | 3 |
199 ** | 15.9% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 4.3 |
200 ** | 22.8% | 5 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 5.5 |
201 ** | 15.5% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No No | Parallel to street | 4.5 |
202 ** | 15.8% | 4 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 4.5 | - | 14 16 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 4.2 |
203 ** | 17.3% | 1 | 0 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 16 16 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes Yes No | Parallel to street | 4.4 |
204 | 24.1% | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 24 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 7.6 |
205 | 22.8% | 4 | 4 | 7.7 | 7.4 * | 4 | 4 | 20 18 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 7.7 |
206 | 19.2% | 5 | 3 | 6.8 * | 5 * | 4 | 4 | 14 16 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 6.5 |
207 | 10.3% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 3.5 |
208 | 8.6% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 2.9 |
209 | 11.5% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 3.9 |
210 | 19.8% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 6.7 |
211 | 20.4% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 7.2 |
212 | 19.7% | 4 | 3 | 5.8 | 5 * | 4 | 4 | 16 4 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Perpendicular to street | 7 |
213 | 14.9% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 8 | 16 4 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 3.7 |
214 | 13.2% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16 | Yes No No | Yes No No | Yes No Yes | Parallel to street | 3.6 |
215 | 10.3% | 2 | 1 | 4 | 5 * | 4 | 4 | 16 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes Yes No | Parallel to street | 2.8 |
216 | 11.4% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12 | No No Yes | No No Yes | Yes No No | Parallel to street | 3.1 |
217 | 5.9% | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 12.5 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes Yes No | Parallel to street | 1.6 |
218 | 11.2% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No No | Parallel to street | 3 |
219 | 11.2% | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 6 | 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes No No | Parallel to street | 3 |
220 | 7.9% | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 * | 4 | 4 | 14 12 | Yes No Yes | Yes No Yes | Yes | Parallel to street | 2.1 |
* The side setback is a second front setback. ** The south elevation of the basements consists of a free-standing wall. |
Appendix B
Appendix C
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Residential Zone | Plot Area/m2 | Percentage of Footprint | Front Setback/m | Side Setback/m | Rear Setback/m |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | 1000 | 39% | 5 | 5 | 7 |
B | 750 | 45% | 4 | 4 | 6 |
C | 500 | 51% | 4 | 3 | 4 |
D | 300 | 55% | 3 | 2.5 | 2.5 |
Day (Time) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
21 March | 21 September | 21 December | |||||||
8:00 am | 12:00 pm | 4:00 pm | 8:00 am | 12:00 pm | 4:00 pm | 8:00 am | 12:00 pm | 4:00 pm | |
Residential Zone A | Max distance = 7 m (rear setback) × for 2 lots = 14 | ||||||||
Flat slope | 7.54 | 7.52 | 7.61 | 7.05 | 7.44 | 7.74 | 29.4 | 17.53 | 63.96 |
15% slope | 9.99 | 9.80 | 10.00 | 9.39 | 9.44 | 9.22 | 31.12 | 25.83 | 68.58 |
20% slope | 10.82 | 10.64 | 10.74 | 10.17 | 10.29 | 12.74 | 51.50 | 29.91 | 69.62 |
30% slope | 12.68 | 12.39 | 12.72 | 11.82 | 11.92 | 11.71 | 62.5 | 36.97 | 92.65 |
Residential Zone B | Max distance = 6 m (rear setback) × for 2 lots = 12 | ||||||||
Flat slope | 7.86 | 7.68 | 7.76 | 6.36 | 7.48 | 7.28 | 29.41 | 17.35 | 63.81 |
15% slope | 10.02 | 9.96 | 10.12 | 9.55 | 9.70 | 9.36 | 46.23 | 26.30 | 78.92 |
20% slope | 12.00 | 10.07 | 12.95 | 9.66 | 9.78 | 9.47 | 48.95 | 28.34 | 80.32 |
30% slope | 15.78 | 12.03 | 15.87 | 14.93 | 11.46 | 14.81 | 60.68 | 35.65 | 90.60 |
Residential Zone C | Max distance = 4 m (rear setback) × for 2 lots = 8 | ||||||||
Flat slope | 7.61 | 7.58 | 8.00 | 7.23 | 7.23 | 7.20 | 29.36 | 17.43 | 63.92 |
15% slope | 10.41 | 8.91 | 8.36 | 9.87 | 8.60 | 9.76 | 39.85 | 23.46 | 70.56 |
20% slope | 11.57 | 9.71 | 11.56 | 10.96 | 9.32 | 10.74 | 44.33 | 26.10 | 74.92 |
30% slope | 13.78 | 11.28 | 13.87 | 13.15 | 10.90 | 12.94 | 53.11 | 31.32 | 83.51 |
Residential Zone D | Max distance = 2.5 m (rear setback) × for 2 lots = 5 | ||||||||
Flat slope | 7.92 | 7.71 | 7.48 | 7.26 | 7.43 | 7.20 | 29.61 | 17.38 | 64.43 |
15% slope | 12.00 | 10.15 | 12.26 | 9.02 | 9.24 | 6.82 | 36.45 | 22.04 | 76.75 |
20% slope | 7.66 | 11.08 | 12.26 | 7.86 | 10.26 | 11.12 | 31.03 | 16.92 | 68.2 |
30% slope | 13.78 | 14.06 | 6.82 | 6.61 | 9.26 | 9.07 | 64.82 | 17.45 | 70.75 |
Residential Zone | Front Setback | Side Setback | Rear Setback | Max Height | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Before | After | Before | After | Before | After | Before | After | |
A | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 15 | 16 |
B | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 5 | ||
C | 4 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 3 | ||
D | 3 | 3 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 3 |
Guideline | Description | Implementation |
---|---|---|
Dynamic Setbacks | Setbacks increase with slope steepness to ensure adequate daylight penetration. | 15 m for flat terrain, 20 m for 15% slopes, 26.4 m for 30% slopes. |
Restrictions on Basement Habitation | Limit basement habitation in areas with slopes >20% to prevent poor living conditions. | Mandate light wells and ventilation systems where basements are necessary. |
Optimized Street Orientation | Align streets with the sun’s path to maximize daylight access. | Prioritize a north–south orientation in new developments. |
Flat slope | ||
Height of building | Distance (rear setback) | Diagram |
3 m | 2.8 m | |
6 m | 5.2 m | |
9 m | 8.3 m | |
12 m | 11.7 m | |
15 m | 13.8 m | |
20% slope | ||
3 m | 11.0 m | |
6 m | 12.9 m | |
9 m | 16.6 m | |
12 m | 19.3 m | |
15 m | 22.1 m | |
30% slope | ||
3 m | 15.3 m | |
6 m | 17.3 m | |
9 m | 20.8 m | |
12 m | 23.6 m | |
15 m | 26.4 m |
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AlBaik, M.; Muhsen, R.; Al-Azhari, W.W. Reconciling Urban Density with Daylight Equity in Sloped Cities: A Case for Adaptive Setbacks in Amman, Jordan. Buildings 2025, 15, 2071. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122071
AlBaik M, Muhsen R, Al-Azhari WW. Reconciling Urban Density with Daylight Equity in Sloped Cities: A Case for Adaptive Setbacks in Amman, Jordan. Buildings. 2025; 15(12):2071. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122071
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlBaik, Majd, Rabab Muhsen, and Wael W. Al-Azhari. 2025. "Reconciling Urban Density with Daylight Equity in Sloped Cities: A Case for Adaptive Setbacks in Amman, Jordan" Buildings 15, no. 12: 2071. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122071
APA StyleAlBaik, M., Muhsen, R., & Al-Azhari, W. W. (2025). Reconciling Urban Density with Daylight Equity in Sloped Cities: A Case for Adaptive Setbacks in Amman, Jordan. Buildings, 15(12), 2071. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122071