Dynamic Tensile Response of Seawater Coral Aggregate Concrete (SCAC) in Saturated State: Experimental and Numerical Simulation Study

Abstract

Seawater Coral Aggregate Concrete (SCAC), made using coral aggregates from marine environments, is gaining attention as a promising material for marine and coastal engineering applications. This study investigates the dynamic tensile behavior of SCAC under both dry and saturated conditions, with an emphasis on the effects of free water on its mechanical properties. The dynamic Brazilian splitting (DBS) tests were conducted to evaluate the dynamic tensile strength, strain rate sensitivity, failure modes, and fracture morphology of SCAC specimens. The results show that saturated SCAC specimens exhibit a reduction in dynamic tensile strength compared to dry specimens, with this difference becoming more pronounced at higher strain rates. The maximum reduction can be observed to be 17.87%. Additionally, saturated SCAC specimens demonstrate greater strain rate sensitivity than dry specimens, which highlights the significant influence of moisture on the material’s mechanical behavior. The failure modes of SCAC were found to be less severe under saturated conditions, suggesting that moisture suppresses crack propagation to some extent, thereby reducing brittleness. Numerical simulations based on the finite element analysis were conducted to simulate the dynamic tensile response; the comparison of numerical and experimental data indicates that adjusting material model parameters effectively simulates the behavior of saturated SCAC.

1. Introduction

As the need for marine infrastructure and island reef development continues to rise, Seawater Coral Aggregate Concrete (SCAC) is increasingly regarded as a promising construction material, which is largely attributed to its use of regionally available coral-based aggregates [1,2,3]. However, marine projects are often subjected to significant challenges, particularly from dynamic loads such as impacts and explosions [4], which may result in crack propagation, fracture, or even complete failure of concrete materials. Concrete, being inherently brittle, possesses a tensile strength significantly lower than its compressive strength [5,6], which results in more severe tensile failure compared to compressive failure under dynamic loading conditions. Furthermore, SCAC is almost invariably exposed to moist or water-saturated conditions in island reef environments [7,8], which alter the internal pore structure and significantly affect the material’s mechanical properties. Under dynamic loading, the interaction between water saturation and the dynamic response of SCAC, especially with regard to its dynamic tensile behavior, becomes increasingly complex. Therefore, investigating the dynamic tensile behavior of SCAC in a saturated state is critical to improving structural performance and ensuring long-term durability in oceanic and coastal construction scenarios.

SCAC represents an innovative building composite formulated using coral particles sourced from island and marine environments, with cement serving as the primary binder [9]. These aggregates undergo significant environmental erosion during their formation, resulting in a pore structure that differs from that of conventional concrete aggregates [10]. Due to the unique properties of the coral aggregates, SCAC exhibits mechanical responses under loading, which differ from those of traditional concrete [11,12,13]. Increasing focus has been directed toward the dynamic response characteristics of SCAC, especially given the pronounced effects of high-rate loadings—including blast and impact events—on foundational elements and structural components in island engineering applications [14]. Wu et al. [15] investigated the impact-induced behavior and failure processes of coral concrete by employing high-rate mechanical experiments in combination with mesoscale computational simulations. Their findings indicated that the material’s dynamic compressive performance is significantly affected by its quasi-static compressive strength. Key indicators, such as dynamic strength, strain rate sensitivity and dynamic increase factor, were found to exhibit strong correlations with the static mechanical characteristics of the material. Guo et al. [16] examined the behavior of recycled coral aggregate concrete (RCAC), which utilized processed coral debris as coarse aggregate, under impact conditions. Their results showed that RCAC achieved a 28-day compressive strength of 62.4 MPa, although its static compressive capacity was approximately 12% lower compared to that of natural aggregate concrete (NAC). When subjected to dynamic loading, RCAC demonstrated a strain rate–dependent increase in compressive resistance and exhibited a three-phase trend in energy absorption characteristics. Guo et al. [17] analyzed the strain-rate sensitivity and energy absorption capacity of seawater coral aggregate concrete (CASC) across various strength levels. The findings indicated that CASC’s mechanical response is highly influenced by loading rate, with higher-grade specimens exhibiting markedly improved toughness indices. Notably, when the 28-day compressive strength ranged between 60 and 80 MPa, high-strength CASC displayed a toughness index approximately threefold greater than its lower-strength counterpart.

While substantial research has been conducted on the dynamic compressive properties of coral concrete, studies on its dynamic tensile properties remain limited. Yue et al. [18], Wu et al. [19] and Ma et al. [20] investigated the direct and indirect tensile properties of coral concrete under dynamic loading through experimental and mesoscale finite element analysis. Peng et al. [21] combined experimental and discrete element numerical simulation methods to study the dynamic tensile properties of coral aggregate seawater shotcrete. However, tensile properties are crucial for the failure mode of concrete as a brittle material [22]. Grote et al. [23] indicated that under high strain-rate conditions, concrete typically exhibits brittle fracture, and dynamic tensile properties play a crucial role in structural design. Therefore, the dynamic tensile properties of SCAC should not be overlooked.

While the mechanical properties of concrete are affected by its saturated condition, the extent of this influence differs across various concrete types [24]. Research has shown that the performance of different types of concrete after saturation does not follow a consistent pattern [25,26,27]. Similarly, saturation affects SCAC, with a particular impact on its compressive performance, especially under dynamic compression. The effect of saturation on SCAC’s compressive strength varies across studies. In some studies [7], saturated SCAC exhibits lower strength than its dry counterpart. However, other research [28] indicates that the relationship between saturation and compressive strength is strain-rate dependent. For instance, under low strain rates, dry SCAC demonstrates superior performance, whereas under high strain rates, saturated SCAC shows enhanced performance. These varying results underscore the need for further investigation into theimpact of saturation on SCAC’s mechanical behavior under different loading conditions.

To summarize, increasing attention has been paid to the dynamic tensile properties of SCAC. Among various influencing factors, the effect of moisture content has become a significant focus, with particular interest in how complete saturation influences its dynamic mechanical behavior. Although some researches have addressed the dynamic properties of SCAC, investigations specifically targeting the influence of saturation on its tensile behavior under dynamic loading remain scarce. This study investigates the influence of moisture saturation on the dynamic tensile behavior of SCAC. A series of dynamic Brazilian splitting (DBS) tests were conducted on specimens in both dry and water-saturated states to evaluate the influence of saturation. Key aspects such as tensile strength under dynamic loading, rate-dependent mechanical response, failure evolution and fracture surface morphology were systematically analyzed to shed light on the impact of saturation on dynamic tensile performance. Additionally, numerical simulations based on finite element analysis were performed to compare the dynamic tensile responses under dry and saturated conditions, providing valuable insights into the differences in mechanical behavior and failure mechanisms.

2. Experiment Setup

2.1. Specimen Preparation

2.1.1. Materials

In this study, SCAC, a specialized type of concrete in which coral aggregate serves as the primary coarse aggregate, was mixed using P.O.42.5-grade ordinary Portland cement, crushed coral reef limestone (CCRL), coral sand, slag powder, superplasticizer, and artificial seawater. CCRL (Figure 1) was utilized as the coarse aggregate. This material has a lower density and higher porosity compared to conventional coarse aggregates. For the fine aggregate (Figure 2), coral sand from the South China Sea was employed. Its particle gradation (Figure 3) was designed according to the recommendations provided in reference [9]. The slag powder and superplasticizer used in the mix were of type S95 and HLX, respectively. Artificial seawater was used for both mixing and curing the concrete. This seawater was prepared in the laboratory to simulate the environmental conditions typical of island and reef engineering. The composition of the artificial seawater, as presented in

Table 1. Mix ratio of artificial seawater (g/L) [2].

NaCl	MgCl·6H2O	Na2SO4	CaCl2	KCl
24.5	11.1	4.1	1.2	0.7

, was prepared following the methodology proposed in the relevant literature [2]. All SCAC specimens were produced using the same mix proportions, as detailed in

Table 2. Mix proportions of SCAC (kg/m³).

Cement	Coral Sand	Crushed Reef-Limestone	Seawater	Superplasticizer	Slag Powder
590	700	780	260	5.1	185

.

2.1.2. Production and Processing of SCAC Specimens

As shown in Figure 4, the manufacturing process of SCAC began with a dry mixing phase for 3 mins, during which the cement, slag powder, CCRL, and coral sand were combined based on the designated ratios. Following this, the wet mixing phase was carried out for 8 mins. In this phase, artificial seawater, combined with the superplasticizer, was added in batches to the mixer, where it was thoroughly blended with the dry ingredients until a uniform concrete slurry was achieved. Once the slurry was prepared, it was poured into mold boxes for casting and compaction, ensuring that the specimens conformed to the required shape. A 28-day curing period under standard conditions was employed for all specimens to guarantee sufficient hydration and strength development. After the curing period, the SCAC specimens were sent to the laboratory for subsequent processing, including drilling, cutting, and grinding. The SCAC specimens (Figure 5) were subsequently machined into standard cylindrical forms, measuring 64 mm in diameter and 32 mm in height, for mechanical testing purposes.

2.1.3. The Water Saturation Treatment of SCAC Specimens

In this study, the specimens were subjected to a water saturation treatment method following the procedure outlined in the literature [7] as shown in Figure 6. Initially, all specimens underwent a standardized drying process prior to the saturation treatment. The specimens were dried in an electric oven at 60 °C for 48 h to ensure they were completely dry [29]. Afterward, the specimens were individually selected for vacuum water saturation. During this process, the specimens were placed in a vacuum saturation apparatus, and the vacuum treatment lasted for 3 h to ensure the specimens absorbed sufficient water and reached a fully saturated state. Once the vacuum saturation treatment was completed, the specimens were quickly used for dynamic and static mechanical property testing. Prior to testing, all specimens were kept in a temperature-controlled environment to ensure the stability of temperature and humidity, thus preventing any external environmental changes from affecting the water content of the SCAC specimens.

2.2. The Quasi-Static Brazilian Splitting Test

To investigate the quasi-static tensile performance of SCAC, the quasi-static Brazilian splitting (QSBS) test [30] was performed. The QSBS test was conducted using the RMT-150C electrohydraulic servo testing system with a loading rate of 0.5 MPa/s according to the literature [31]. The principle of the static BS test is based on inducing a tensile failure in the specimen by applying a compressive load along its diameter. As the compressive load is applied, a radial tensile stress is generated within the SCAC specimen. Once the tensile stress reaches the specimen’s tensile strength, a crack forms and propagates from the center of the disk to the edges, leading to failure. The tensile strength of the SCAC specimen can be calculated by measuring the applied load at the point of failure and using the following Equation (1):

$${\sigma }_{\mathrm{t}}={\displaystyle \frac{2P}{\mathsf{\pi }dh}}$$

(1)

where, ${\sigma }_{\mathrm{t}}$ is the tensile strength of the SCAC specimen, $P$ is the load force, $d$ is the diameter of the SCAC specimen, $h$ is the thickness of the SCAC specimen.

2.3. The Dynamic Brazilian Splitting Test

Configuration of the Testing System

The dynamic Brazilian splitting (DBS) test was conducted using the Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) system, a widely utilized apparatus for high-strain rate testing of materials [32]. The SHPB system (Figure 7) employed in this study comprises two main components: the rod system and the measurement system. The rod system is composed of three essential components: the incident bar, the transmitted bar, and the striker bar. Each of the bars has an identical diameter of 74 mm, with lengths of 4000 mm, 2500 mm, and 400 mm, respectively. To minimize wave dispersion and ensure accurate measurement during testing, all bars are constructed from high-strength stainless steel. The measurement system, on the other hand, consists of strain gauges and a dynamic strain meter. Strain gauges are affixed to both the incident and transmitted bars, facilitating the precise measurement of strain. In order to observe the failure process of SCAC specimens, a high-speed camera was used to record the DBS test of SCAC specimens.

The SHPB system operates by generating a stress wave through an impact on the incident bar, which then propagates along the length of the bar. When the striker bar impacts, a stress wave is created, moving through the incident bar, reaching the SCAC specimen positioned between the bars, and then continuing into the transmitted bar. The strain gauges, affixed to both the incident and transmitted bars, are capable of capturing and recording the incident wave, reflected wave, and transmitted wave in real time. The data collected through these strain gauges are essential for calculating the SCAC specimen’s dynamic tensile stress using Equation (2) according to the methods provided in the literature [33].

$${\sigma }_{\mathrm{d}}\left(t\right)={\displaystyle \frac{2AE}{\pi D{h}_{\mathrm{s}}}}{\epsilon }_{\mathrm{t}}\left(t\right)$$

(2)

where ${\epsilon }_{\mathrm{t}}\left(t\right)$, E and, A represent the transmitted strain, elastic modulus of the bar, and the cross-section area of the bar, respectively, and $h_{\mathrm{s}}$ and D are the height and diameter of the SCAC specimen, respectively.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Stress–Time Curve and Tensile Strength

In this study, dynamic tensile tests were performed on SCAC specimens under both saturated and dry conditions at varying strain rates. The dynamic tensile stress–time curves for the SCAC specimens were recorded. The typical tensile stress–time curves of SCAC under the two conditions are presented in Figure 8. The dynamic tensile strength (DTS) values of SCAC under different strain rates and moisture conditions were obtained by analyzing the peak points of the curves, as shown in Figure 9. Compared with dynamic compression tests [7], the tensile strength gap between dry and saturated specimens was less significant, though a reduction in tensile strength was still observed in the saturated state. Experimental measurements revealed that DTS values in both dried and saturated SCAC specimens were observed to exhibit progressive enhancement under elevated strain rate conditions, confirming the rate-dependent characteristics [28] of SCAC.

It has been observed that the evolution trend of the dynamic tensile strength in saturated SCAC specimens aligns with that found in dynamic compression scenarios, as reported in previous studies [7]. This similarity suggests that the presence of water within the pores contributes to a reduction in the material’s mechanical strength. Additionally, this is similar to the pattern observed in reference [34], where the DST of both ordinary-strength concrete and high-strength concrete decreased to varying degrees under the effect of saturated water. Specifically, the study of Luo et al. [7] reports that under impact loading conditions, it has been found that the dynamic compression strength of saturated concrete is reduced due to the increase in pore pressure. However, a similar trend has also been observed in dynamic tensile experiments conducted on other concrete materials under saturated conditions, where, under dynamic loading, it has been found that the dynamic tensile strength of saturated specimens is reduced to varying degrees in comparison to the dry specimens. The impact of saturation on concrete behavior under tensile loading varies significantly from its effect under compressive loading. In contrast to the typical increase in brittleness and failure observed with rising pore pressure during compression, under tensile loading, moisture has been observed to reduce the tensile strength while also alleviating brittleness, indicating an opposite trend [35]. Specifically, the presence of water filling the pores of the SCAC specimen may contribute to a weakening of the SCAC specimen’s tensile strength. This is because the moisture could facilitate crack propagation by reducing the internal bonding between the cement matrix and the aggregates [36] compared to the dry specimens.

3.2. Sensitivity of Strain Rate

The strain rate sensitivity, regarded as a fundamental characteristic of quasi-brittle materials, including concrete, under dynamic loading conditions, has been documented to substantially influence their dynamic mechanical performance [37]. In order to further analyze the strain rate sensitivity of SCAC under both saturated and dry conditions, the Dynamic Increase Factor (DIF) [38] is compared between these two conditions, where the DIF is defined as the ratio of dynamic tensile strength to static tensile strength [39].

Figure 10 illustrates the changing trends in the DIF of SCAC specimens subjected to saturated and dried conditions. Furthermore, the mean static resistance to tension is measured as 4.41 MPa for the dry SCAC specimens and 3.13 MPa for those exposed to water saturation, as shown in Figure 9b. As illustrated in Figure 10, under the same loading rate, SCAC specimens in a saturated condition consistently exhibit greater DIF values than those in an dried state. This observation suggests that the material exhibits heightened sensitivity to strain rate effects when moisture is present, in contrast to its behavior in dry conditions. Moreover, the DIF is shown to increase progressively with the increase in loading rate, a trend which is particularly pronounced under dry conditions, thereby reinforcing the observation that SCAC exhibits a stronger strain rate sensitivity at higher strain rates. Based on these, it can be inferred that the DTS of SCAC is more heavily influenced by moisture content under saturated conditions. An interesting observation emerges when comparing dynamic compression and dynamic tension experiments, as dry concrete specimens typically show a higher strain rate sensitivity in dynamic compression tests [7]. However, in dynamic tension experiments, the trend is reversed, with saturated concrete specimens exhibiting a more pronounced strain rate sensitivity. The literature [25] proposed that this divergence arises from a competing interaction between two mechanisms: the influence of water saturation on internal fluid movement within the specimen’s pore and the role of pore structure and crack evolution when subjected to tensile forces. Therefore, under dynamic tensile loading, the saturated SCAC exhibits a more pronounced strain rate sensitivity compared to its dry counterpart due to the combined effects of pore pressure and reduced internal friction between particles.

3.3. Dynamic Failure Process

Figure 11 and Figure 12 depict the progression of dynamic failure in SCAC specimens subjected to varying strain rates under both saturated and dry conditions. As shown in the figures, cracks initially form at the center of the SCAC specimen and gradually propagate toward the edges, ultimately penetrating through the entire specimen. The failure behavior of SCAC, whether in the saturated or dry state, has been observed to intensify as the strain rate increases, which is reflected by a greater number of cracks and a more rapid development of crack propagation. This indicates that with the increase in loading rate, the failure process of the SCAC becomes more severe, and the formation and propagation of cracks occur more rapidly. Moreover, a comparison between SCAC in dry and saturated conditions under identical loading rates reveals that fewer cracks are generated, and the damage within the failure region appears less pronounced when the specimens are in the saturated condition compared to the dry state. This phenomenon indicates that moisture exerts a restraining influence on the failure process of SCAC. When in the saturated state, the material demonstrates enhanced resistance to crack growth, resulting in a less extensive failure response under the same strain rate.

Under dry condition, SCAC exhibits a more brittle failure mode, characterized by increased crack density and greater damage severity during dynamic loading. In contrast, the presence of moisture appears to mitigate this brittleness to some extent, resulting in fewer cracks and a more dispersed failure pattern. This difference may be partially attributed to the role of pore water in redistributing internal stresses during loading. At lower strain rates, the pore water may act to dampen local stress concentrations at crack tips through fluid movement and pressure equilibration, thereby delaying crack initiation and propagation [40]. However, this effect does not counterbalance the overall reduction in dynamic tensile strength observed in the saturated state. While moisture may help moderate crack propagation mechanisms, the saturated SCAC still exhibits a reduced load-bearing capacity compared to dry specimens due to softening of the matrix and loss of cohesion.

3.4. Failure Patterns

In the dynamic tension tests, the failure modes of SCAC specimens were collected. The failure patterns of both dry and saturated SCAC specimens under different loading rate levels are shown in Figure 13. As observed, compared to the complete fragmentation mode of SCAC specimens under dynamic compression impact [7], the dynamic tension tests primarily resulted in partial failure of SCAC, characterized by tensile fracture along the SCAC specimen’s central axis. Cracks propagated along the center of the SCAC specimen, while a wedge-shaped crushing zone developed at the interface with the steel bar. The degree of damage was found to be influenced by both the loading strain rate and the moisture condition of the SCAC specimen.

With the loading rate increased, the wedge-shaped crushing zone in the SCAC specimens progressively expanded, and the failure became more pronounced. At higher strain rates, SCAC exhibited more distinct brittle characteristics. This observation is consistent with the results presented in the literature [41], where DST on RCAC revealed a similar “strain rate effect” pattern in the failure modes. According to literature [41], the failure modes of RCAC specimens at different strain rates are closely related to their energy dissipation characteristics. An increase in strain rate results in a corresponding rise in the energy absorbed by the specimen, the majority of which is dissipated through the processes of crack initiation and propagation. Furthermore, under the same loading rate, the crack propagation path in saturated SCAC specimens is more complex, and the localized crushing is relatively minor, indicating a more ductile failure mode. In contrast, dry SCAC specimens exhibit a more pronounced wedge-shaped crushing zone at the loading end, exhibiting a more brittle failure mode. This difference suggests that the saturated state not only enhances the toughness of SCAC but also slows down the crack propagation rate, thereby reducing the risk of brittle failure. On the other hand, dry SCAC specimens, due to the lack of moisture, exhibit increased brittleness under the same strain rate, with rapid crack propagation and a larger localized crushing zone.

4. Numerical Simulation

4.1. Modeling and Materials Setup

A finite element analysis model for SCAC was established, referring to the experimental setup of SCAC’s DST, as shown in Figure 14. The model consists of an incident bar and a transmitted bar, with the SCAC specimen positioned between them. Following the approach described in reference [15], stress waves are directly introduced at the initial end of the incident bar, eliminating the need for a striker bar and thereby simplifying the model configuration. Both the incident and transmitted bars have a diameter of 74 mm, with respective lengths of 4000 mm and 2500 mm. The SCAC specimen is cylindrical in shape, measuring 64 mm in diameter and 32 mm in height. For mesh generation, a mapped mesh technique was employed to discretize the bars and SCAC specimens. To reduce computational time while ensuring the accuracy of the results, the mesh density of the bars was adjusted according to the approach used by the literature [20]. The incident bar, transmitted bar, and SCAC specimen consist of a total of 8500, 6375, and 393,600 finite elements, respectively. In this study, the contact behavior between the SCAC specimen and the bars is defined as erosion contact using the contact keyword card (*CONTACT_AUTOMATIC_SURFACE_TO_SURFACE). Additionally, to simulate a more realistic experimental environment, the end of the transmitted bar is modeled with a non-reflecting boundary condition to prevent interference from reflected waves on the propagation of stress waves, according to the reference [42].

In this study, two different material models were employed to describe the behavior of the incident bar, transmitted bar, and SCAC specimen. The incident and transmitted bars are assumed to behave as linear elastic materials [38], characterized by Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio. The material parameters for the bars are consistent with those used for the steel material in the SHPB apparatus, as listed in

Table 3. The material parameters of steel bar.

Elastic Modulus/GPa	Density/g∙cm−3	Poisson’s Ratio
210	7.83	0.3

.

The Johnson–Holmquist Concrete (JHC) constitutive model [43] was used to describe the mechanical behavior of the SCAC specimen in this study. The JHC model consists of three main components: the basic material model, the damage model, and the state model [44]. The use of the JHC model and the methodology for determining its parameters have been extensively discussed in the literature [45]. In this work, following the approach outlined in reference [46], the material parameters of the JHC model are adjusted to simulate the saturated state and dry state of the SCAC specimen. The JHC model parameters for both the dry and saturated states of the SCAC specimen, as provided by references [7], are summarized in

Table 4. The JHC model parameters for SCAC.

	$\mathit{\rho }$ (kg/m3)	$\mathit{G}$	fc (GPa)	ft (GPa)	A	B	N	C
Dry	2040	16.16	0.041	0.00441	0.30	0.83	0.87	0.0061
Saturated	2099	12.51	0.032	0.00313	0.46	0.72	0.61	0.0063

.

4.2. The Validity of the SHPB Simulation

The validity of the numerical simulation results was assessed by comparing them with experimental data. Following the methodology employed in the SHPB experiments, the stress–time response of the SCAC specimen was computed through simulation, as illustrated in Figure 15. As shown, the dynamic tensile strength (DTS) of the SCAC obtained from the simulation exhibits a trend consistent with that observed in the experimental results. Specifically, the presence of saturation leads to a decrease in the DTS of the SCAC, and the material exhibits a pronounced strain rate sensitivity.

4.3. The Failure Patterns of SCACs in FEM

Figure 16 illustrates the failure patterns of SCACs in numerical simulation. For easier comparison, the Effective Plastic Strain was confined to the same range. As shown in Figure 16, the numerical simulation results demonstrate a consistency with the experimental observations. The failure modes of both dry and saturated SCACs are primarily characterized by similarities in crack propagation patterns, crack distribution, and the extent of the crushing zone. In the saturated state, the fracture zone of SCAC is more uniform, primarily concentrated in the central region of the specimen, with cracks propagating through the entire specimen. In contrast, under dry conditions, the fracture zone is more diffuse. Although the fracture still occurs in the central region of the specimen, the crack distribution is more complex, with multiple cracks appearing in the higher loading rate stages. Moreover, as the loading rate increased, both the fracture zone and the crushing zone expand in size, exhibiting a phenomenon consistent with the experimental findings. The presence of saturated water influences the failure mode of SCAC by affecting both crack initiation and propagation.

5. Conclusions

• Saturated SCAC specimens generally exhibited a reduction in dynamic tensile strength compared to their dry counterparts, with the reduction reaching up to 17.87%. This reduction was more pronounced at higher strain rates, aligning with trends observed in dynamic compression tests.
• Both dry and saturated SCAC specimens exhibited strain rate dependence, with dynamic tensile strength increasing as the strain rate rose. The saturated SCAC demonstrated a higher sensitivity to strain rate compared to the dry samples. The moisture content influenced the failure modes of SCAC under dynamic tension, with saturated specimens showing fewer cracks and a less pronounced failure pattern than the dry specimens.
• The numerical simulations performed with the Johnson–Holmquist Concrete (JHC) model aligned well with experimental observations, thereby confirming the reliability of the simulation outcomes. The comparison between experimental and simulated data supported the conclusion that saturation has a substantial impact on the mechanical properties of SCAC. Furthermore, the comparison between the numerical simulations and experimental results illustrates that adjusting material model parameters is an effective approach for simulating the behavior of saturated concrete or similar materials.
• Considering the observed reduction in dynamic tensile performance under saturated conditions, special attention should be given to the dynamic tensile response of water-saturated SCAC in island reef engineering, particularly for structures subjected to tensile loads in such moisture-rich environments.