Barriers to Building Information Modeling (BIM) Implementation in Late-Adopting EU Countries: The Case of Portugal
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Literature Review of Barriers to BIM Implementation
3. Research Methodology and Materials
3.1. Research Methodology
3.2. Stage I: Determination of the Critical Barriers to BIMI
3.3. Stage II: ISM Model
3.4. Stage III: MICMAC Analysis
3.5. Stage IV: Development of Mitigation Measures
4. Results
4.1. ISM Model
4.2. MICMAC Diagram
5. Discussion and Mitigation Measures
5.1. Discussion
5.1.1. ISM Model
5.1.2. MICMAC Analysis
5.1.3. Category of the Barriers
5.2. Mitigation Measures
6. Conclusions and Implications
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Author, Country | Main Aim | Methodologies | Main Barriers and Findings |
---|---|---|---|
Gu and London [18], Australia | Assess the role of BIM in the AEC industry and identify challenges to its adoption | Literature review and assessment of BIM in the industry | Issues with data organization, communication standards, security, a lack of clarity around roles and responsibilities, and a need for better training and support |
Kassem, Brogden, and Dawood [19], UK | Analyze barriers and drivers for BIM and 4D technology adoption | Literature review and survey of AEC professionals | Unclear benefits, resistance to change, lack of experience, inconsistent adoption, contract limitations, and time and cost concerns. The paper highlights that overcoming non-technical barriers is crucial to bridging the gap between technology and end users. |
C. W. Chan [20], Hong Kong | Examine BIM use among design companies for public housing projects and barriers to adoption thereof | Questionnaire survey | Lack of skilled staff, inadequate training, no standards, and low client demand. The study suggests that the government, industry, and educational bodies should collaborate to set clear BIM standards and offer targeted training to improve adoption. |
Rogers, Chong, and Preece [21], Malaysia | Explore BIM adoption by consulting companies, focusing on perceptions and drivers for adoption | Focus group, surveys, Pearson analysis | Lack of well-trained personnel, lack of guidance and government support. Companies are willing to adopt BIM, driven primarily by market demand and the pursuit of competitive advantage. |
M. R. Hosseini, Banihashemi, et al. [22], Australia | Examine BIMI in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) using innovation diffusion theory | Questionnaire survey and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) | Reluctance to implementation on account of uncertain return on investment (ROI) and low interest in BIM from supply chain entities |
Bosch-Sijtsema et al. [23], Sweden | Explore constraints and driving forces of BIMI with respect to mid-sized contractors | Interview and questionnaire survey | Partners that do not use BIM, a lack of demand from clients, and an absence of internal demand in the company |
Ayinla and Adamu [24], UK | Investigate BIM adoption in SMEs, mainly focusing on reasons for delays in adoption | Mixed-method approach with online questionnaires and expert interviews | Cost, organizational culture, lack of expertise, low client demand, and legal and technology challenges |
Olawumi et al. [4], eight different countries | Explore barriers to BIM and sustainability integration across eight countries | Delphi survey, descriptive and inferential analysis, and interrater agreement | Resistance to change, lengthy adaptation period, lack of BIM and sustainability workflow understanding |
Gamil and Rahman [25], Yemen | Investigate practitioners’ awareness of BIM and identify the main barriers of BIMI throughout the project’s life cycle | Literature review, questionnaire survey, and descriptive analysis | Financial restrictions, lack of BIM knowledge, improper introduction of BIM concepts, lack of awareness of BIM benefits, and no governmental enforcement |
G. Ma et al. [26], China | Investigate institutional and technological factors affecting BIM adoption | Literature review, ISM, and MICMAC analysis | Insufficient corporate and project leadership, inadequate software functionality, limited financial support, lack of trust and respect, and challenges related to complexity, interoperability, and compatibility |
D. W. M. Chan, Olawumi, and Ho [27], Hong Kong | Identify benefits and barriers to BIMI | Questionnaire survey and comparative analysis | Resistance to change, inadequate organizational support, and lack of industry-wide standards. Key benefits of BIM include improved cost estimation and control, more efficient construction planning and management, and enhanced design and project quality. |
Zhou, Yang, and Yang [7], China | Recommend strategies for advancing BIM adoption based on international experiences | Literature review and mapping of barriers | Insufficient government leadership, organizational and legal challenges, high costs, resistance to changing traditional practices, and lack of external motivation |
Olanrewaju et al. [16], Nigeria | Evaluate the perceptions of professionals regarding BIM barriers | Literature review, questionnaire, descriptive statistics, and factor analysis | Few studies available, lack of knowledge, an absence of government policies, and high cost of implementation |
Ma et al. [28], China | Explore BIM barriers at the project level in the AEC industry | Questionnaire survey, descriptive statistics, and principal component analysis (PCA) | Lack of experience and capabilities, technical conditions, system inertia, additional input, changes in work routines, and implementation risks |
Saka and Chan [29], Nigeria | To analyze BIMI barriers for SMEs in the construction industry | ISM and MICMAC analysis | Lack of implementation strategies, low awareness, unclear benefits, interoperability issues, and no government mandate |
Sun, Xu, and Jiang [6], China | Identify and categorize BIM barriers and make recommendations for adoption | Literature review, ISM, questionnaire, and expert interviews | Data ownership issues, incomplete BIM system standardization, lack of industry insurance, shortage of skilled BIM technicians, limited project experience, inadequate BIM infrastructure, misalignment in stakeholders’ views on BIM, changes in delivery models, and software functionality issues |
Farooq et al. [30], Pakistan | Assess the current state of BIMI, and identify barriers and potential | Questionnaire survey, ISM, and MICMAC analysis | High initial costs, dissatisfaction with existing practices, and communication gaps within entities. The study concluded that BIM is more economical and efficient than traditional management techniques. |
Manzoor et al. [31], Malaysia | Develop strategies for overcoming BIM adoption barriers | Literature review and questionnaire survey | Lack of BIM training, standards, guidelines, expertise, high costs, and insufficient research on BIM. The study also identified strategies to mitigate these barriers and a research framework to guide effective BIMI and sustainability. |
Siebelink et al. [32], nine Western European countries | Improve the understanding of the barriers to BIMI and the maturity levels of BIM within organizations. | Multiple case study | Motivation, competence, and time capacity barriers exist at all organizational levels. Middle management is key to overcoming these barriers. Low BIM maturity is hampered by insufficient top management support. High maturity deals with more external challenges to maximizing BIM benefits. |
Olanrewaju et al. [33], Nigeria | Examine BIM barriers in building projects, focusing on awareness | Literature review, questionnaire survey, and PLS-SEM analysis | Cost and standards, processes and economics, technology and business, training and personnel |
Durdyev et al. [34], New Zealand | Prioritize barriers to BIM adoption during the facility management phase | Parsimonious fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and expert interviews | High cost of software, hardware, and training; lack of expertise; and unfamiliarity with BIM. The study concludes that additional resources are needed to overcome these challenges and expand BIM adoption in facility management. |
Onososen and Musonda [11], South Africa | Analyze barriers to BIM integration in sustainability assessments | ISM and MICMAC analysis | Poor interoperability of BIM tools, high investment cost, and complexity |
Alemayehu et al. [35], Ethiopia | Investigates perceived BIM barriers and their significance, focusing on respondents’ personal and professional attributes | Literature review, survey, Relative Importance Index (RII), exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and regression model | Project complexity, low BIM maturity, liability, licensing, and maintenance issues |
Munianday, A. Rahman, and Esa [36], Malaysia | Explore challenges faced by BIM adopters | Case study approach, in-depth interviews, and NVivo software analysis | Time and financial investment, resistance to workflow, and approach changes. Human resources and capital are the most critical elements influencing the adoption of new technologies and innovations. |
No. | Barrier | References |
---|---|---|
1 | Lacking functionalities of BIM tools | [6,7,19,26,32] |
2 | Complexity of BIM tools | [4,11,19,25,31] |
3 | BIM-related project risks, and engineering and information defects | [4,18,25,29,35] |
4 | Immaturity of BIM technology | [23,28,34,52] |
5 | Interoperability difficulties of the software | [4,6,11,18,19,20,22,23,24,25,26,27,29,30,31,33] |
6 | Software acquisition cost | [4,6,7,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,29,30,31,33,53] |
7 | IT investment necessary for the transition to BIM | [4,6,20,23,25,26,27,29,30,31,33,34,36,54] |
8 | Time and capital investment in training | [4,22,23,25,26,28,33,34,52] |
9 | Change in work method required | [6,7,21,25,28,31,32] |
10 | Lack of BIM standards and implementation strategies | [4,7,21,22,25,26,27,28,29,31,33] |
11 | Lack of support and knowledge from top management | [4,6,23,24,25,26,28,29,30,32] |
12 | Need for corporate restructuring | [4,7,20,32] |
13 | Lack of internal communication protocols | [4,7,20,32] |
14 | Current methods provide satisfactory results | [4,28,29,30] |
15 | Weak cooperation in BIM adoption from other stakeholders | [4,20,23,25,26,27,28,31,32,33] |
16 | Lack of IT structure in the firm | [20,28] |
17 | Lack of experience within the firm for BIMI | [4,6,7,20,21,23,24,25,28,30,31,32,33] |
18 | Weak cooperation from other industry partners | [32,54] |
19 | Resistance to change | [6,7,22,23,24,27,29,30,31,32,33,55] |
20 | Lack of available BIM training | [18,20,25,27,28,30,31,33] |
21 | Scarcity of BIM-capable professionals | [4,6,22,27,28,30,33,52] |
22 | Lack of client demand | [4,7,20,22,23,24,25,28,29,31,32,33] |
23 | Ignorance of BIM capabilities/benefits | [22,24,25,26,29,31] |
24 | Lack of evaluation and feedback for successful BIMI | [4,6,7,23,26,27,28,31,33] |
25 | Fragmented nature of the construction industry | [4,32] |
26 | BIM data ownership and rights | [4,6,7,20,24,31,33] |
27 | Lack of government regulation | [4,7,20,21,22,24,25,26,28,29,30,31,32,33,35] |
28 | Concerns related to the safety and insurance framework of BIM | [6,7,20,27,31] |
Code | Barrier—Description |
---|---|
B1 | Software acquisition cost—Decision-makers may lack awareness of the long-term benefits of BIM [16], and high initial software procurement costs may contribute to a perceived negative ROI [4]. |
B2 | IT investment necessary for the transition to BIM—Given the significant computing power required by the BIM process, most businesses must upgrade their existing hardware, network, and other inadequate infrastructure components [4]. |
B3 | Time and capital investment in training—Successful BIMI requires companies to offer comprehensive training to their employees, as BIM tools, workflows, and protocols diverge from traditional practices. Early-stage training poses the most significant challenge to BIM success [10]. |
B4 | Change in working methods required—BIM procedures differ from traditional practices [6]; inadequate BIMI strategies exacerbate the challenges associated with adapting to new work methods. |
B5 | Lack of BIM standards and implementation strategies—Lack of BIM standards and information on BIMI strategies poses great obstacles for companies transitioning to BIM [27,31]. |
B6 | Lack of support and knowledge from top management—Top management is accountable for strategic decisions impacting the company’s success. Having years of experience and knowledge of traditional methods, they often tend to be risk-averse when it comes to engaging in BIM [24]. |
B7 | Need for company restructuring—According to Ossick and Neff [56], project managers play a crucial role in BIMI. However, traditionally, projects have operated as separate entities within companies. Therefore, it is essential to restructure and clearly define the organizational framework of companies to facilitate cooperation and collaboration between projects for the success of BIMI. |
B8 | Weak cooperation in BIM adoption from other entities involved—Construction projects involve multiple entities with specific interests in successful project development. While BIM is intended to increase collaboration and communication, it demands the active participation of all entities [7]. |
B9 | Lack of experience within the company for BIMI—Kassem et al. [19] argue that successful technology implementation relies on an adequately trained and experienced workforce to avoid increased costs and delays motivated by corrections and adjustments [6]. |
B10 | Resistance to change—Resistance to change undermines change objectives, potentially leading to procedural failure. However, technological advancements and innovative methods offer a competitive edge to adopters. Chan et al. [27] have identified cultural resistance to change as a significant barrier. |
B11 | Scarcity of BIM professionals—Professionals with BIM skills are rare, primarily because of the industry’s failure to provide adequate training and development opportunities, particularly for recent graduates. This also stems from the lack of BIM in the curricula offered by universities, as Rogers et al. [21] identified. |
B12 | Ignorance of BIM capabilities/benefits—A lack of understanding of the benefits of BIM undermines its success potential, as companies and their employees fail to recognize the need for change and the advantages it could offer them [37]. |
B13 | Lack of evaluation and feedback on successful BIMIs—BIM promotes new and improved working and relationship processes compared to traditional ones; therefore, further evaluation and feedback on successful implementation is needed [28]. |
B14 | Fragmented nature of the construction industry—The construction industry is often fragmented, with knowledge from projects not consistently shared across teams or companies. This hinders collaboration, an essential element of successful BIMI [6]. |
B15 | Lack of government regulation—The absence of mature regulations and contractual legislation for BIM and a lack of government incentives such as subsidies or tax reductions represent a major barrier to its widespread adoption [6]. |
B(i/j) | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | V | O | O | O | A | O | O | O | O | O | O | O | O | O | |
2 | O | O | O | A | O | A | O | O | O | A | O | O | O | ||
3 | A | A | A | O | O | A | O | A | O | O | O | O | |||
4 | A | A | X | O | A | A | O | O | O | A | O | ||||
5 | O | V | A | O | O | A | O | A | A | A | |||||
6 | V | O | O | V | O | A | A | O | O | ||||||
7 | A | A | A | O | O | A | A | O | |||||||
8 | A | A | A | O | O | A | O | ||||||||
9 | O | A | O | O | O | O | |||||||||
10 | O | A | A | O | O | ||||||||||
11 | O | O | O | O | |||||||||||
12 | A | O | O | ||||||||||||
13 | O | O | |||||||||||||
14 | O | ||||||||||||||
15 |
B(i/j) | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
3 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
4 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
5 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
6 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
8 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
9 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
10 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
11 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
12 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
13 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
14 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
15 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
B(i/j) | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | DVP |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
3 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
4 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 |
5 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 |
6 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1* | 1 | 1 | 1* | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 9 |
7 | 0 | 0 | 1* | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 |
8 | 0 | 1 | 1* | 1* | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 |
9 | 0 | 1* | 1 | 1 | 1* | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7 |
10 | 0 | 1* | 1* | 1 | 1* | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7 |
11 | 0 | 1* | 1 | 1* | 1 | 0 | 1* | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 |
12 | 1* | 1 | 1* | 1* | 1* | 1 | 1* | 1* | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 10 |
13 | 1* | 1* | 1* | 1* | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1* | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 11 |
14 | 0 | 1* | 1* | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 7 |
15 | 0 | 0 | 1* | 1* | 1 | 0 | 1 * | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 5 |
DEP | 4 | 10 | 13 | 12 | 10 | 3 | 12 | 8 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Barrier | Reachability Set | Antecedent Set | Intersection Set | Level |
---|---|---|---|---|
B2 | B2 | B: 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 | B2 | I |
B3 | B3 | B: 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 | B3 | I |
B1 | B1 | B: 1, 6, 12, 13 | B1 | II |
B4 | B: 4, 7 | B: 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 | B: 4, 7 | II |
B7 | B: 4, 7 | B: 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 | B: 4, 7 | II |
B5 | B5 | B: 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 | B5 | III |
B8 | B8 | B: 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 | B8 | IV |
B15 | B15 | B15 | B15 | IV |
B9 | B9 | B: 9, 11 | B9 | V |
B10 | B10 | B: 6, 10, 12, 13 | B10 | V |
B14 | B14 | B14 | B14 | V |
B6 | B6 | B: 6, 12, 13 | B6 | VI |
B11 | B11 | B11 | B11 | VI |
B12 | B12 | B: 12, 13 | B12 | VII |
B13 | B13 | B13 | B13 | VIII |
B(i,j) | B2 | B3 | B1 | B4 | B7 | B5 | B8 | B15 | B9 | B10 | B14 | B6 | B11 | B12 | B13 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B2 | I | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
B3 | 0 | I | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
B1 | 1 | 0 | II | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
B4 | 0 | 1 | 0 | II | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
B7 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | II | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
B5 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | III | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
B8 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | IV | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
B15 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | IV | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
B9 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | V | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
B10 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | V | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
B14 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | V | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
B6 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | VI | 0 | 0 | 0 |
B11 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | VI | 0 | 0 |
B12 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | VII | 0 |
B13 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | VIII |
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Lourenço, M.P.; Arantes, A.; Costa, A.A. Barriers to Building Information Modeling (BIM) Implementation in Late-Adopting EU Countries: The Case of Portugal. Buildings 2025, 15, 1651. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101651
Lourenço MP, Arantes A, Costa AA. Barriers to Building Information Modeling (BIM) Implementation in Late-Adopting EU Countries: The Case of Portugal. Buildings. 2025; 15(10):1651. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101651
Chicago/Turabian StyleLourenço, Miguel Pereira, Amílcar Arantes, and António Aguiar Costa. 2025. "Barriers to Building Information Modeling (BIM) Implementation in Late-Adopting EU Countries: The Case of Portugal" Buildings 15, no. 10: 1651. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101651
APA StyleLourenço, M. P., Arantes, A., & Costa, A. A. (2025). Barriers to Building Information Modeling (BIM) Implementation in Late-Adopting EU Countries: The Case of Portugal. Buildings, 15(10), 1651. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101651