Evaluating Accessibility and Equity of Multi-Level Urban Public Sports Facilities at the Residential Neighborhood Scale
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Data and Methods
3.1. Study Area and Data
3.1.1. Study Area
3.1.2. Data Sources
3.2. Methods
3.2.1. Methodological Framework
3.2.2. Kernel Density Estimation
3.2.3. The Average Nearest Neighbor Index
3.2.4. Gaussian-Based Two-Step Floating Catchment Area Method
3.2.5. Gini Coefficient and Lorenz Curve
3.2.6. Location Quotient Method
4. Results
4.1. Spatial Distribution of Public Sports Facilities in Shanghai
4.2. Spatial Accessibility of Public Sports Facilities in Shanghai
4.3. Spatial Equity of Public Sports Facilities in Shanghai
5. Discussion
5.1. Influencing Factors of the Spatial Distribution Pattern of Shanghai Public Sports Facilities
5.2. Challenges in the Spatial Distribution of Urban Public Sports Facilities in Shanghai
5.3. Suggestions for Optimizing the Spatial Configuration of Public Sports Facilities in Shanghai
5.4. Strengths, Limitations, and Prospects
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Sallis, J.F.; Cerin, E.; Conway, T.L.; Adams, M.A.; Frank, L.D.; Pratt, M.; Salvo, D.; Schipperijn, J.; Smith, G.; Cain, K.L.; et al. Physical Activity in Relation to Urban Environments in 14 Cities Worldwide: A Cross-Sectional Study. Lancet 2016, 387, 2207–2217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Frehlich, L.; Christie, C.D.; Ronksley, P.E.; Turin, T.C.; Doyle-Baker, P.; McCormack, G.R. The Neighbourhood Built Environment and Health-Related Fitness: A Narrative Systematic Review. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2022, 19, 124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, S.; Zhang, X.; Liu, Y. A Study of the Influence of Sports Venues on the Intra-City Population Layout Based on Multi-Source Data—Taking Xi’an City and Zhengzhou City as Examples. PLoS ONE 2023, 18, e0285600. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- China Expects Urbanisation Rate to Near 70% in Next Five Years. Reuters. 2024. Available online: https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/china-expects-urbanisation-rate-near-70-next-five-years-2024-07-31/ (accessed on 3 May 2025).
- Hong, T.; Yu, N.; Mao, Z.; Zhang, S. Government-Driven Urbanisation and Its Impact on Regional Economic Growth in China. Cities 2021, 117, 103299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Monda, K.L.; Gordon-Larsen, P.; Stevens, J.; Popkin, B.M. China’s Transition: The Effect of Rapid Urbanization on Adult Occupational Physical Activity. Soc. Sci. Med. 2007, 64, 858–870. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Althoff, T.; Sosič, R.; Hicks, J.L.; King, A.C.; Delp, S.L.; Leskovec, J. Large-Scale Physical Activity Data Reveal Worldwide Activity Inequality. Nature 2017, 547, 336–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, R. The Linkage between the Perception of Neighbourhood and Physical Activity in Guangzhou, China: Using Street View Imagery with Deep Learning Techniques. Int. J. Health Geogr. 2019, 18, 18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sallis, J.F.; Cerin, E.; Kerr, J.; Adams, M.A.; Sugiyama, T.; Christiansen, L.B.; Schipperijn, J.; Davey, R.; Salvo, D.; Frank, L.D.; et al. Built Environment, Physical Activity, and Obesity: Findings from the International Physical Activity and Environment Network (IPEN) Adult Study. Annu. Rev. Public Health 2020, 41, 119–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tcymbal, A.; Demetriou, Y.; Kelso, A.; Wolbring, L.; Wunsch, K.; Wäsche, H.; Woll, A.; Reimers, A.K. Effects of the Built Environment on Physical Activity: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies Taking Sex/Gender into Account. Environ. Health Prev. Med. 2020, 25, 75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Devarajan, R.; Prabhakaran, D.; Goenka, S. Built Environment for Physical Activity-an Urban Barometer, Surveillance, and Monitoring. Obes. Rev. Off. J. Int. Assoc. Study Obes. 2020, 21, e12938. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Assah, F.K.; Ekelund, U.; Brage, S.; Mbanya, J.C.; Wareham, N.J. Urbanization, Physical Activity, and Metabolic Health in Sub-Saharan Africa. Diabetes Care 2011, 34, 491–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hales, C.M.; Fryar, C.D.; Carroll, M.D.; Freedman, D.S.; Aoki, Y.; Ogden, C.L. Differences in Obesity Prevalence by Demographic Characteristics and Urbanization Level among Adults in the United States, 2013–2016. JAMA 2018, 319, 2419–2429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wang, R.; Feng, Z.; Liu, Y.; Qiu, Y. Is Lifestyle a Bridge between Urbanization and Overweight in China? Cities 2020, 99, 102616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sallis, J.F.; Floyd, M.F.; Rodríguez, D.A.; Saelens, B.E. Role of Built Environments in Physical Activity, Obesity, and Cardiovascular Disease. Circulation 2012, 125, 729–737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- An, R.; Shen, J.; Yang, Q.; Yang, Y. Impact of Built Environment on Physical Activity and Obesity among Children and Adolescents in China: A Narrative Systematic Review. J. Sport. Health Sci. 2019, 8, 153–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Limstrand, T. Environmental Characteristics Relevant to Young People’s Use of Sports Facilities: A Review. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 2008, 18, 275–287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Diez Roux, A.V.; Evenson, K.R.; McGinn, A.P.; Brown, D.G.; Moore, L.; Brines, S.; Jacobs, D.R. Availability of Recreational Resources and Physical Activity in Adults. Am. J. Public Health 2007, 97, 493–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yancey, A.K.; Fielding, J.E.; Flores, G.R.; Sallis, J.F.; McCarthy, W.J.; Breslow, L. Creating a Robust Public Health Infrastructure for Physical Activity Promotion. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2007, 32, 68–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, Y. Empirical Analysis of Spatial Heterogeneity in the Development of China’s National Fitness Plan. PLoS ONE 2024, 19, e0305397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lefebvre, H. The Production of Space; Wiley-Blackwell: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1992; ISBN 978-0-631-18177-4. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, Y.; Yi Ming, Y.; Shi, B. Spatial Distribution Characteristics and Causes of Public Sports Venues in China. Sci. Rep. 2023, 13, 15056. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xiao, W.; Wang, W. Study on the Accessibility of Community Sports Facilities in Fuzhou, China. Sustainability 2022, 14, 14331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ouyang, W.; Wang, B.; Tian, L.; Niu, X. Spatial Deprivation of Urban Public Services in Migrant Enclaves under the Context of a Rapidly Urbanizing China: An Evaluation Based on Suburban Shanghai. Cities 2017, 60, 436–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Notice of the Shanghai Municipal Sports Bureau on the Issuance of the “14th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Public Sports Facilities in Shanghai. Available online: https://www.shanghai.gov.cn/gwk/search/content/7f03522f9a1346d89398536ccda2ca4e (accessed on 23 May 2024).
- Jakar, G.S.; Razin, E.; Rosentraub, M.S.; Rosen, G. Sport Facility Development: Municipal Capital and Shutting out the Private Sector. Eur. Plan. Stud. 2018, 26, 1222–1241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Y.; Wang, H.; Sun, C.; Wu, H. Equity Measurement of Public Sports Space in Central Urban Areas Based on Residential Scale Data. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 3104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, Y.; Tang, S. Assessment of Service Quality in Urban Sports Facilities: A Comprehensive Evaluation Framework Applied to Shanghai, China. Buildings 2025, 15, 193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Y.; Lin, N.; Wu, Y.; Ding, L.; Pang, J.; Lv, T. Spatial Equity in the Layout of Urban Public Sports Facilities in Hangzhou. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0256174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Omer, I. Evaluating Accessibility Using House-Level Data: A Spatial Equity Perspective. Comput. Environ. Urban Syst. 2006, 30, 254–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taleai, M.; Sliuzas, R.; Flacke, J. An Integrated Framework to Evaluate the Equity of Urban Public Facilities Using Spatial Multi-Criteria Analysis. Cities 2014, 40, 56–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dadashpoor, H.; Rostami, F.; Alizadeh, B. Is Inequality in the Distribution of Urban Facilities Inequitable? Exploring a Method for Identifying Spatial Inequity in an Iranian City. Cities 2016, 52, 159–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xing, L.; Chen, Q.; Liu, Y.; He, H. Evaluating the Accessibility and Equity of Urban Health Resources Based on Multi-Source Big Data in High-Density City. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2024, 100, 105049. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheng, T.; Liu, C.; Yang, H.; Wang, N.; Liu, Y. From Service Capacity to Spatial Equity: Exploring a Multi-Stage Decision-Making Approach for Optimizing Elderly-Care Facility Distribution in the City Centre of Tianjin, China. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2022, 85, 104076. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Halonen, J.I.; Stenholm, S.; Kivimäki, M.; Pentti, J.; Subramanian, S.V.; Kawachi, I.; Vahtera, J. Is Change in Availability of Sports Facilities Associated with Change in Physical Activity? A Prospective Cohort Study. Prev. Med. 2015, 73, 10–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lee, G.; Hong, I. Measuring Spatial Accessibility in the Context of Spatial Disparity between Demand and Supply of Urban Park Service. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2013, 119, 85–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xiao, Y.; Wang, D.; Fang, J. Exploring the Disparities in Park Access through Mobile Phone Data: Evidence from Shanghai, China. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2019, 181, 80–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scott, M.M.; Evenson, K.R.; Cohen, D.A.; Cox, C.E. Comparing Perceived and Objectively Measured Access to Recreational Facilities as Predictors of Physical Activity in Adolescent Girls. J. Urban Health 2007, 84, 346–359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Z.; Fan, Z.; Song, Y.; Chai, Y. Assessing equity in park accessibility using a travel behavior-based G2SFCA method in Nanjing, China. J. Transp. Geogr. 2021, 96, 103179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karusisi, N.; Thomas, F.; Méline, J.; Chaix, B. Spatial Accessibility to Specific Sport Facilities and Corresponding Sport Practice: The RECORD Study. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2013, 10, 48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moore, L.V.; Diez Roux, A.V.; Evenson, K.R.; McGinn, A.P.; Brines, S.J. Availability of Recreational Resources in Minority and Low Socioeconomic Status Areas. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2008, 34, 16–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Panter, J.; Jones, A.; Hillsdon, M. Equity of access to physical activity facilities in an English city. Prev. Med. 2008, 46, 303–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, C. Discussion on the Optimization Method of Public Service Facility Layout from the Perspective of Spatial Equity: A Study Based on the Central City of Shanghai. Land 2023, 12, 1780. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tsou, K.-W.; Hung, Y.-T.; Chang, Y.-L. An accessibility-based integrated measure of relative spatial equity in urban public facilities. Cities 2005, 22, 424–435. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Powers, S.L.; Pitas, N.A.; Rice, W.L. Applying Location Quotient Methodology to Urban Park Settings with Mobile Location Data: Implications for Equity and Park Planning. Urban For. Urban Green. 2024, 98, 128418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sheahan, K.L.; Orgill-Meyer, J.; Speizer, I.S.; Curtis, S.; Paul, J.; Weinberger, M.; Bennett, A.V. Development of Integration Indexes to Determine the Extent of Family Planning and Child Immunization Services Integration in Health Facilities in Urban Areas of Nigeria. Reprod. Health 2021, 18, 47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chang, H.-S.; Liao, C.-H. Exploring an Integrated Method for Measuring the Relative Spatial Equity in Public Facilities in the Context of Urban Parks. Cities 2011, 28, 361–371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tan, P.Y.; Samsudin, R. Effects of Spatial Scale on Assessment of Spatial Equity of Urban Park Provision. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2017, 158, 139–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Turner, M.G.; O’Neill, R.V.; Gardner, R.H.; Milne, B.T. Effects of Changing Spatial Scale on the Analysis of Landscape Pattern. Landsc. Ecol. 1989, 3, 153–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Z.; Wang, M.; Xu, Z.; Ye, Y.; Chen, S.; Pan, Y.; Chen, J. The Influence of Community Sports Parks on Residents’ Subjective Well-Being: A Case Study of Zhuhai City, China. Habitat. Int. 2021, 117, 102439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Houston, D. Implications of the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem for Assessing Built Environment Correlates of Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activity. Appl. Geogr. 2014, 50, 40–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Javanmard, R.; Lee, J.; Kim, J.; Liu, L.; Diab, E. The Impacts of the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP) on Social Equity Analysis of Public Transit Reliability. J. Transp. Geogr. 2023, 106, 103500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- 2023 Shanghai Sports Facilities Statistical Survey Main Data Bulletin. Available online: https://tyj.sh.gov.cn/ggtz/20240429/a13e38632ef147a6933388176cb65712.html (accessed on 29 March 2025).
- Main Data of the Seventh National Population Census. Available online: https://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817185.html (accessed on 29 March 2025).
- GB 50442; Urban Public Service Facilities Planning Standard. Ministry of Housing and Urban–Rural Development of China: Beijing, China, 2018.
- Shanghai Urban Planning Compilation and Review Center. Spatial Planning Standard for 15-Minute Community Life Circle (Draft for Public Consultation); Shanghai Urban Planning Compilation and Review Center: Shanghai, China, 2024. [Google Scholar]
- Bondarenko, M.; Kerr, D.; Sorichetta, A.; Tatem, A. Census/Projection-Disaggregated Gridded Population Datasets, Adjusted to Match the Corresponding UNPD 2020 Estimates, for 183 Countries in 2020 Using Built-Settlement Growth Model (BSGM) Outputs; University of Southampton: Southampton, UK, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Jian, I.Y.; Chan, E.H.W.; Xu, Y.; Owusu, E.K. Inclusive Public Open Space for All: Spatial Justice with Health Considerations. Habitat. Int. 2021, 118, 102457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jian, I.Y.; Luo, J.; Chan, E.H.W. Spatial justice in public open space planning: Accessibility and inclusivity. Habitat. Int. 2020, 97, 102122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, X.; Tang, P.; He, Y.; Woolley, H.; Hu, X.; Yang, L.; Luo, J. The Correlation between Children’s Outdoor Activities and Community Space Characteristics: A Case Study Utilizing SOPARC and KDE Methods in Chengdu, China. Cities 2024, 150, 105002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, J.; Li, J. Study on the Spatial Arrangement of Urban Parkland under the Perspective of Equity—Taking Harbin Main City as an Example. Land 2024, 13, 248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silverman, B.W. Using Kernel Density Estimates to Investigate Multimodality. J. R. Stat. Soc. B (Methodol.) 1981, 43, 97–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luo, W.; Qi, Y. An Enhanced Two-Step Floating Catchment Area (E2SFCA) Method for Measuring Spatial Accessibility to Primary Care Physicians. Health Place 2009, 15, 1100–1107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shao, Y.; Luo, W. Supply-Demand Adjusted Two-Steps Floating Catchment Area (SDA-2SFCA) Model for Measuring Spatial Access to Health Care. Soc. Sci. Med. 2022, 296, 114727. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blumenberg, E.; Yao, Z.; Wander, M. Variation in Child Care Access across Neighborhood Types: A Two-Step Floating Catchment Area (2SFCA) Approach. Appl. Geogr. 2023, 158, 103054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tao, Z.; Cheng, Y.; Liu, J. Hierarchical Two-Step Floating Catchment Area (2SFCA) Method: Measuring the Spatial Accessibility to Hierarchical Healthcare Facilities in Shenzhen, China. Int. J. Equity Health 2020, 19, 164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xing, L.; Liu, Y.; Wang, B.; Wang, Y.; Liu, H. An Environmental Justice Study on Spatial Access to Parks for Youth by Using an Improved 2SFCA Method in Wuhan, China. Cities 2020, 96, 102405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, X.; Jia, P. A Comparative Analysis of Accessibility Measures by the Two-Step Floating Catchment Area (2SFCA) Method. Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci. 2019, 33, 1739–1758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raza, A.; Zhong, M.; Akuh, R.; Safdar, M. Public Transport Equity with the Concept of Time-Dependent Accessibility Using Geostatistics Methods, Lorenz Curves, and Gini Coefficients. Case Stud. Transp. Policy 2023, 11, 100956. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Panagiotopoulos, G.; Kaliampakos, D. Location Quotient-Based Travel Costs for Determining Accessibility Changes. J. Transp. Geogr. 2021, 91, 102951. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Culley, P.; Pascoe, J. (Eds.) Stadium and Arena Design, 2nd ed.; ICE Publishing: London, UK, 2015; ISBN 978-0-7277-5790-6. [Google Scholar]
- Wimmer, M. Stadium Buildings: Construction and Design Manual; DOM Publishers: Berlin, Germany, 2016; ISBN 978-3-86922-415-2. [Google Scholar]
- Bigman, D.; ReVelle, C. An Operational Approach to Welfare Considerations in Applied Public-Facility-Location Models. Environ. Plan. A 1979, 11, 83–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Loumeau, G. Locating Public Facilities: Theory and Micro Evidence from Paris. J. Urban Econ. 2023, 135, 103544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- White, A.N. Accessibility and Public Facility Location. Econ. Geogr. 1979, 55, 18–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ren, M.; Lin, Y.; Jin, M.; Duan, Z.; Gong, Y.; Liu, Y. Examining the Effect of Land-Use Function Complementarity on Intra-Urban Spatial Interactions Using Metro Smart Card Records. Transportation 2020, 47, 1607–1629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, T.; Chai, Y. Daily life circle reconstruction: A scheme for sustainable development in urban China. Habitat. Int. 2015, 50, 250–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, H.; Shao, H.; Li, Y.; Guan, M.; Tong, J. GIS-Based Analysis of Elderly Care Facility Distribution and Supply–Demand Coordination in the Yangtze River Delta. Land 2025, 14, 723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Song, L.; Kong, X.; Cheng, P. Supply-demand matching assessment of the public service facilities in 15-minute community life circle based on residents’ behaviors. Cities 2024, 144, 104637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harvey, D. (Ed.) Spaces of Neoliberalization: Towards a Theory of Uneven Geographical Development; [Eighth] Hettner-Lecture [Department of Geography, University of Heidelberg, from 28 June to 2 July] 2004; Hettner-lectures; Steiner: Stuttgart, Germany, 2005; ISBN 978-3-515-08746-9. [Google Scholar]
- Xu, X.; Huang, C.; Shah, W.U.H. Financial Resources Utilization Efficiency in Sports Infrastructure Development, Determinant of Total Factor Productivity Growth and Regional Production Technology Heterogeneity in China. Heliyon 2024, 10, e26546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- China Issued a Three-Year Upgrade Plan to Promote the Construction of National Fitness Venues and Facilities (Part 1). Available online: https://en.planning.org.cn/nua/view?id=998 (accessed on 28 March 2025).
- Yang, J.; Guo, Z. Quantitative Evaluation of Public Sports Spatial Service in the Central Urban District of Megalopolis: A Case Study of Shanghai. J. Tianjin Univ. Sport 2017, 32, 277–283. [Google Scholar]
- Jing, Y.; Liu, Y.; Cai, E.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, Y. Quantifying the Spatiality of Urban Leisure Venues in Wuhan, Central China—GIS-Based Spatial Pattern Metrics. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2018, 40, 638–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Friedmann, J. Regional Development Policy: A Case Study of Venezuela; MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1966; ISBN 978-0-262-06013-4. [Google Scholar]
- Badiei, N.; Almodaresi, S.A.; Saraei, M. hosein A Systematic Review of Fractal Theory and Its Application in Geography and Urban Planning. Int. J. Appl. Arts Stud. (IJAPAS) 2021, 6, 59–77. [Google Scholar]
- Ma, X.; Li, G. Progress and Application Practice in Western City Network Studies. Urban. Plan. Int. 2012, 27, 65–70. [Google Scholar]
- Khavarian-Garmsir, A.R.; Sharifi, A.; Hajian Hossein Abadi, M.; Moradi, Z. From Garden City to 15-Minute City: A Historical Perspective and Critical Assessment. Land 2023, 12, 512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khavarian-Garmsir, A.R.; Sharifi, A.; Sadeghi, A. The 15-Minute City: Urban Planning and Design Efforts toward Creating Sustainable Neighborhoods. Cities 2023, 132, 104101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Comi, A.; Savchenko, L. Last-mile delivering: Analysis of environment-friendly transport. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2021, 74, 103213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wade, R.H. On the Causes of Increasing World Poverty and Inequality, or Why the Matthew Effect Prevails. New Political Econ. 2004, 9, 163–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, G.; Wei, L.; Gu, J.; Zhou, T.; Liu, Y. Benefit distribution in urban renewal from the perspectives of efficiency and fairness: A game theoretical model and the government’s role in China. Cities 2020, 96, 102422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, H.; Cong, C.; Chakraborty, A. Exploring the Institutional Dilemma and Governance Transformation in China’s Urban Regeneration: Based on the Case of Shanghai Old Town. Cities 2022, 131, 103915. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Neutens, T.; Schwanen, T.; Witlox, F. The Prism of Everyday Life: Towards a New Research Agenda for Time Geography. Transp. Rev. 2011, 31, 25–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kedarnath Navandar, R.; Hamid Hasan, S.; Jadhav, N.; Udham Singh, K.; Monisha, R.; Venkatram, N. Modernizing Sports an Intelligent Strategy for Entertainment through Internet of Things in Sports. Entertain. Comput. 2025, 52, 100804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- New! Have You Tried the Free Smart Gym at Binhai Bay yet? Available online: https://bhwxq.dg.gov.cn/gkmlpt/content/4/4188/mpost_4188613.html#752 (accessed on 1 May 2025).
- Kaczynski, A.T.; Besenyi, G.M.; Stanis, S.A.W.; Koohsari, M.J.; Oestman, K.B.; Bergstrom, R.; Potwarka, L.R.; Reis, R.S. Are Park Proximity and Park Features Related to Park Use and Park-Based Physical Activity among Adults? Variations by Multiple Socio-Demographic Characteristics. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2014, 11, 146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Feng, J. The Influence of Built Environment on Travel Behavior of the Elderly in Urban China. Transp. Res. Part. D Transp. Environ. 2017, 52, 619–633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Y.; Yuan, Y. The Neighborhood Effect of Exposure to Blue Space on Elderly Individuals’ Mental Health: A Case Study in Guangzhou, China. Health Place 2020, 63, 102348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rainham, D.; McDowell, I.; Krewski, D.; Sawada, M. Conceptualizing the Healthscape: Contributions of Time Geography, Location Technologies and Spatial Ecology to Place and Health Research. Social. Sci. Med. 2010, 70, 668–676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Siu, K.W.M.; Wong, K.S.L. Flexible Design Principles: Street Furniture Design for Transforming Environments, Diverse Users, Changing Needs and Dynamic Interactions. Facilities 2015, 33, 588–621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rawls, J. An Egalitarian Theory of Justice. Available online: https://usdglobal.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/02-an-egalitarian-theory-of-justice-by-rawls.pdf (accessed on 10 May 2025).
- Smith, A. The Development of “Sports-City” Zones and Their Potential Value as Tourism Resources for Urban Areas. Eur. Plan. Stud. 2010, 18, 385–410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zmyslony, P.; Wędrowicz, K.A. Cities in the Experience Economy: The Rise and the Future of Urban Leisure Formats. J. Tour. Futures 2019, 5, 185–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wergeland, E.S.; Hognestad, H.K. Reusing Stadiums for a Greener Future: The Circular Design Potential of Football Architecture. Front. Sports Act. Living 2021, 3, 692632. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, L.; Dai, Y.; Han, L.; Xu, Z. Optimizing Urban Resource Efficiency: A Scenario Analysis of Shared Sports Facilities in Fostering Sustainable Communities in Nanjing, China. J. Clean. Prod. 2024, 468, 143082. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Category | Facilities | Quantity | Service Radius (m) |
---|---|---|---|
City-level | Sports centers, stadiums, gymnasiums, and natatoriums | 59 | 5000 |
Subdistrict-level | Citizen fitness centers, stadiums, gymnasiums, and swimming pools | 86 | 2500 |
Community-level | Public sports courts, citizen fitness rooms, fitness stations, and senior exercise centers | 5164 | 1000 |
Residential-level | Fitness spots and exercise areas | 17,865 | 500 |
Observed Mean Distance (m) | Expected Mean Distance (m) | Nearest Neighbor Index | Z-Score | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
City-level | 3286.95 | 4592.21 | 0.72 | −4.18 | 0.00 |
Subdistrict-level | 5026.86 | 4109.42 | 1.22 | 3.96 | 0.00 |
Community-level | 383.44 | 766.68 | 0.50 | −68.72 | 0.00 |
Residential-level | 240.52 | 407.68 | 0.59 | −104.85 | 0.00 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Wang, W.; Cai, Y.; Xiong, X.; Xu, G. Evaluating Accessibility and Equity of Multi-Level Urban Public Sports Facilities at the Residential Neighborhood Scale. Buildings 2025, 15, 1640. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101640
Wang W, Cai Y, Xiong X, Xu G. Evaluating Accessibility and Equity of Multi-Level Urban Public Sports Facilities at the Residential Neighborhood Scale. Buildings. 2025; 15(10):1640. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101640
Chicago/Turabian StyleWang, Wenchao, Yujun Cai, Xiangrui Xiong, and Genyu Xu. 2025. "Evaluating Accessibility and Equity of Multi-Level Urban Public Sports Facilities at the Residential Neighborhood Scale" Buildings 15, no. 10: 1640. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101640
APA StyleWang, W., Cai, Y., Xiong, X., & Xu, G. (2025). Evaluating Accessibility and Equity of Multi-Level Urban Public Sports Facilities at the Residential Neighborhood Scale. Buildings, 15(10), 1640. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101640