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Volume 15
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10.3390/met15090959
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Article

A Green Electroslag Technology for Cadmium Recovery from Spent Ni-Cd Batteries Under Protective Flux with Electromagnetic Stirring by Electrovortex Flows

by
Ervīns Blumbergs
1,*,
Michail Maiorov
1,
Artur Bogachov
2,
Ernests Platacis
1,
Sergei Ivanov
1,
Pavels Gavrilovs
3 and
Vladimir Pankratov
2
1
Institute of Physics, University of Latvia, 32 Miera Str., LV-2169 Salaspils, Latvia
2
Institute of Solid State Physics, University of Latvia, Kengaraga 8, LV-1063 Riga, Latvia
3
Institute of Physics and Material Science, Natural Sciences and Technology Department, Riga Technical University, 3 P. Valdena Str., LV-1048 Riga, Latvia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Metals 2025, 15(9), 959; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15090959
Submission received: 7 July 2025 / Revised: 8 August 2025 / Accepted: 15 August 2025 / Published: 29 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Technologies in Metal Recovery)
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Abstract

The recycling of nickel–cadmium batteries poses a significant environmental challenge due to cadmium’s high biotoxicity. This study proposes a green method for recovering cadmium from cadmium oxide (CdO) using carbon (coal) in the presence of a molten binary flux (KCl:NaCl = 0.507:0.493, melting point 667 °C). The flux’s relatively low density and conductivity enable cadmium reduction beneath and through the flux layer. Brown coal (5–25 mm) served as the reductant. The reduction of cadmium from cadmium oxide with carbon (brown coal) took place in the temperature range from 667 °C to 700 °C. To enhance the process, electrovortex flows (EVF) were employed—generated by the interaction between non-uniform AC electric currents and their self-induced magnetic fields resembling conditions in a fluidised bed reactor. The graphite crucible acted as both one of the electrodes, with a graphite rod as the second electrode. As Cd and CdO are denser than both the flux and coal, the reduction proceeded below the flux layer. The flux facilitated CdO transport to the reductant, speeding up the reaction. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed the formation of metallic cadmium beneath and within the flux layer. This method demonstrates the feasibility of flux-assisted cadmium recovery without prior mixing and offers a foundation for further optimisation of sustainable battery recycling.
Keywords: green technology; cadmium waste recycling; cadmium oxide; cadmium reduction; protective fluxes; electromagnetic stirring; magnetic hydro dynamics; electrovortex flows; pyrometallurgy; hydrometallurgy; electroslag green technology; cadmium waste recycling; cadmium oxide; cadmium reduction; protective fluxes; electromagnetic stirring; magnetic hydro dynamics; electrovortex flows; pyrometallurgy; hydrometallurgy; electroslag

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MDPI and ACS Style

Blumbergs, E.; Maiorov, M.; Bogachov, A.; Platacis, E.; Ivanov, S.; Gavrilovs, P.; Pankratov, V. A Green Electroslag Technology for Cadmium Recovery from Spent Ni-Cd Batteries Under Protective Flux with Electromagnetic Stirring by Electrovortex Flows. Metals 2025, 15, 959. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15090959

AMA Style

Blumbergs E, Maiorov M, Bogachov A, Platacis E, Ivanov S, Gavrilovs P, Pankratov V. A Green Electroslag Technology for Cadmium Recovery from Spent Ni-Cd Batteries Under Protective Flux with Electromagnetic Stirring by Electrovortex Flows. Metals. 2025; 15(9):959. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15090959

Chicago/Turabian Style

Blumbergs, Ervīns, Michail Maiorov, Artur Bogachov, Ernests Platacis, Sergei Ivanov, Pavels Gavrilovs, and Vladimir Pankratov. 2025. "A Green Electroslag Technology for Cadmium Recovery from Spent Ni-Cd Batteries Under Protective Flux with Electromagnetic Stirring by Electrovortex Flows" Metals 15, no. 9: 959. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15090959

APA Style

Blumbergs, E., Maiorov, M., Bogachov, A., Platacis, E., Ivanov, S., Gavrilovs, P., & Pankratov, V. (2025). A Green Electroslag Technology for Cadmium Recovery from Spent Ni-Cd Batteries Under Protective Flux with Electromagnetic Stirring by Electrovortex Flows. Metals, 15(9), 959. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15090959

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