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Article

Mineralogy and In Situ Sulfur Isotope Geochemistry of Pyrite: Implications for Ore-Forming Processes of the Moshan Gold Deposit, Jiaodong Peninsula, North China

by
Faqiang Zhao
1,2,3,
Zhimin Li
2,3,
Tongliang Tian
2,3,
Peng Guo
2,3,
Bin Li
2,3,
Huaidong Luo
2,3,
Yongliang Qi
2,3,
Jiepeng Tian
4,5,* and
Pengpeng Zhang
6
1
College of Earth Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China
2
Shandong Institute of Geophysical and Geochemical Exploration, Jinan 250013, China
3
Shandong Engineering Research Center of Underground Resources and Environment High Precision Detection, Jinan 250013, China
4
Key Laboratory of Building Structural Retrofitting and Underground Space Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jinan 250101, China
5
School of Civil Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
6
Institute of Geophysical and Geochemical Exploration, Chinese Academy of Geological Science, Langfang 065000, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2026, 16(4), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16040344
Submission received: 10 February 2026 / Revised: 22 March 2026 / Accepted: 23 March 2026 / Published: 24 March 2026
(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Deposits)
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Abstract

The Jiaodong gold-mineralized area is one of the most significant gold districts in China. The newly discovered Moshan gold deposit is hosted in the Late Jurassic Queshan granite, previously considered a prospecting blind zone. In this study, pyrite from the Moshan gold deposit is examined as the primary research subject. To elucidate the ore-forming processes and genetic mechanisms of this deposit, we conducted a comprehensive mineralogical and geochemical study on pyrite, the principal gold-bearing mineral. EPMA and LA-MC-ICP-MS analyses reveal that the pyrite is slightly sulfur-deficient (average S/Fe ratio of 1.976) and exhibits trace element variations (As, Co, and Ni) strongly correlated with distinct metallogenic stages. Gold occurs in various forms, including visible inclusion gold, fracture gold, and invisible nano-particulate gold (Au0). The in situ sulfur isotope δ34S values range from 7.11‰ to 9.40‰ (average 8.00‰), displaying high homogeneity and a positive deviation from the troilite in the Canyon Diablo iron meteorite. By integrating pyrite S-Fe relationships, Co-Ni-As systematics, and sulfur isotope characteristics, the study indicates that the Moshan gold deposit originates from a magmatic-hydrothermal source. The ore-forming materials predominantly derive from Mesozoic granite-derived magmatic-hydrothermal fluids, with a minor contribution from crustal basement materials. The depth of mineralization is interpreted as mid-shallow. These findings not only highlight the metallogenic potential of the Queshan granite and clarify the genetic relationship between the Moshan gold deposit and other regional gold deposits but also provide a novel theoretical foundation and technical support for deep gold exploration in the Jiaodong region.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

The Jiaodong gold-mineralized area, located on the southeastern edge of the North China Craton (NCC), represents one of China’s most prolific gold-enriched regions [1,2,3]. In recent years, significant advances in deep prospecting have led to the discovery of gold deposits in areas that were previously considered prospecting blind zones. These new findings challenge traditional exploration models and offer fresh perspectives for understanding the regional metallogenic systems associated with “Jiaodong-type” gold deposits [4,5]. The Moshan gold deposit, located on the western side of the Muping–Rushan ore concentration area, is hosted within the Late Jurassic granite (Queshan granite). With a proven gold reserve of 15 tons, it stands as a typical medium-sized gold deposit [5,6]. Its discovery fundamentally alters the traditional view that the Queshan granite exhibits “very few gold occurrences and low metallogenic potential”.
Research on gold deposits within the Muping–Rushan ore concentration area has predominantly focused on those hosted by the Kunyushan granite. These studies have extensively examined various aspects, including ore mineral characteristics, metallogenic stage division, wall-rock alteration patterns, ore-forming fluid properties, metallogenic material sources, diagenetic and metallogenic chronology, gold precipitation mechanisms, and deposit genesis. While previous studies have extensively characterized deposits in the Kunyushan granite, the highly debated nature of their ore-forming fluids underscores the need to investigate distinct, previously overlooked magmatic systems within the same regional framework. For instance, Chen et al. (2017) observed sulfur deficiencies and slight iron enrichment in pyrite from the Rushan gold deposit across various metallogenic stages, the S/Fe atomic ratio of pyrite ranges from 1.86 to 1.95, and the degree of Fe enrichment is approximately +0.19%–+0.43% relative to the theoretical Fe content (46.55%) of standard pyrite [7]. Mills et al. (2015) proposed that the content of invisible gold in Rushan pyrite is controlled by arsenic (As) content in the hydrothermal system [8], whereas the study by Sai et al. (2020) indicated that pyrite from this deposit is not enriched in As [9]. Recent studies indicate that tellurium (Te) incorporation in pyrite enhances gold enrichment and mineralization. Independent investigations of deposits such as Tangjiagou, Denggezhuang, Jinniushan, Yinggezhuang, and Jinqingding revealed significant differences in the major and trace element compositions of genetically distinct pyrite types. These studies further established that invisible gold primarily occurs as elemental nano-particulate gold (Au0) within pyrite [10]. Cheng et al. (2025) subsequently clarified that gold in the Rushan, Denggezhuang, and Yinggezhuang deposits predominantly exists in the following two forms: visible independent gold minerals closely associated with pyrite, and solid solution gold (Au+) and nano-gold (Au0) residing in mineral lattices or lattice defects [11]. In contrast, research on the Moshan gold deposit is extremely limited, with only preliminary discussions on deposit geological characteristics, prospecting potential, and metallogenic stages having been conducted [5,6,12]. Other scientific issues, such as its metallogenic age, mineral composition, source of materials, and genetic mechanism, have not been systematically investigated, and its genetic relationship with other regional gold deposits remains unclear.
As the most widely distributed metal sulfide in hydrothermal gold deposits, pyrite is not only a crucial carrier of gold and various trace elements, but its physicochemical properties also consistently record changes in geological conditions during the metallogenic process [13,14,15]. This makes it an ideal indicator mineral for constraining deposit genesis and reconstructing metallogenic processes [13,14,15]. Pyrite in the Jiaodong gold-mineralized area is closely associated with gold mineralization in both time and space. Conducting refined and systematic research on it is therefore of great significance for advancing regional metallogenic theory and guiding prospecting practice. Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) are core technologies for micro-area analysis and complement each other effectively. LA-ICP-MS enables simultaneous in situ analysis of sulfur isotopes and trace elements with low detection limits, while EPMA offers a wide elemental analysis range, minimal sample damage, and high resolution, allowing for accurate characterization of element spatial distribution patterns [14,16].
This study selects pyrite from the Moshan gold deposit as its primary research object. Metallogenic stages are delineated through optical mineralogy. Combined with EPMA and LA-ICP-MS technologies, the trace element and sulfur isotope compositions of pyrite are analyzed. The occurrence state of gold, pyrite genesis, metallogenic material sources, and the deposit’s genetic mechanism are investigated in depth. The aims are to elevate the research level of gold deposits within the Queshan granite, clarify their genetic relationship with regional gold deposits, and provide a theoretical basis and technical reference for the prospecting and exploration of similar gold deposits in this area.

2. Regional Geological Setting

The Jiaodong gold-mineralized area occupies a distinctive tectonic setting on the southeastern margin of the North China Craton. Bounded by the Tan-Lu fault zone to the west and adjacent to the Sulu ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic belt to the southeast, this region experienced significant Mesozoic Pacific Plate subduction, resulting in a unique tectonic-magmatic-metallogenic system [1,10,17,18]. Regionally, the gold mineralization pattern comprises the following three major ore concentration areas from west to east (Figure 1a): Jiaoxibei (Zhaoyuan–Laizhou), Qipengfu (Qixia–Penglai–Fushan), and Muru (Muping–Rushan). Among them, the Muru ore concentration area is the output area of the Moshan gold deposit, the research area of this paper (Figure 1b). The Jiaodong Peninsula is tectonically divided by the Wulian–Yantai fault zone into the Jiaobei terrane (NW) and the Sulu terrane (SE). These terranes exhibit significant differences in basement lithology, magmatic activity, and tectonic evolution, collectively controlling the spatial distribution of regional gold deposits [11,19,20].
The Jiaobei terrane is the main enrichment area of gold deposits in Jiaodong gold-mineralized area, exposing a large area of Precambrian metamorphic basement, which constitutes a potential source of regional metallogenic materials. The basement rock sequence is rich, mainly including Neoarchean TTG (tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite) gneiss, Paleoproterozoic meta-sedimentary rocks, and Neoproterozoic slate and sandstone, etc. (Figure 1b) [21,22]. In addition to the ancient basement, Mesozoic granite is widely developed in the Jiaobei terrane, forming the main body of regional magmatic activities. According to the formation age, it can be divided into the following three stages: Late Jurassic granite (Linglong granite, Queshan granite), Early Cretaceous early-stage granodiorite (Guojialing granodiorite), and Early Cretaceous late-stage granite (Aishan granite) [23,24,25,26,27]. Among them, the Late Jurassic Queshan granite is the direct host rock of the Moshan gold deposit, and its formation and evolution process have a key controlling significance for the metallogenesis of the deposit.
The Sulu terrane is mainly composed of high-grade metamorphic rocks and Mesozoic magmatic rocks, with ultrahigh-pressure gneiss as the main body, accompanied by Lower Cretaceous volcanic-sedimentary rock series and multiple stages of Mesozoic magmatic rocks. The Mesozoic granite in this area can be divided into the following two stages: Late Jurassic (Kunyushan granite, Wendeng granite) and Early Cretaceous (Sanfoshan granite, Weideshan granite) [26,28]. Among them, the periphery of the Kunyushan granite is the main occurrence area of known gold deposits in the Muping–Rushan ore concentration area. In addition, intermediate-basic dykes such as diorite porphyrite and lamprophyre are developed in both terranes. These dykes vary in scale, generally 10–500 m in length and 1–10 m in width, and their occurrences are mostly consistent with regional auriferous quartz veins [29,30].
Regional structures are dominated by NE-NNE trending faults (Figure 1b), which are the core elements controlling the spatial distribution of gold deposits in Jiaodong. Among them, the Sanshandao fault, Jiaojia fault, Zhaoyuan–Pingdu fault, Qixia fault, Xilin–Douya fault, and Muping–Jimo fault constitute six major trunk ore-controlling fault zones [28,31,32]. Most gold deposits occur along these faults and their subsidiary structures [33]. The Moshan deposit exemplifies this system, being controlled by a secondary branch of the Muping–Jimo fault—highlighting the regional pattern of trunk faults controlling mineralization and secondary faults hosting ore. The above-mentioned trunk faults have experienced multiple stages of activities, forming wide fracture zones and alteration zones, while secondary and sub-secondary faults form a network of channels, which not only provide paths for the long-distance migration of ore-bearing hydrothermal fluids but also provide key ore-hosting spaces for hydrothermal unloading and the precipitation and enrichment of gold and sulfides in areas where tectonic activities weaken and P-T (temperature-pressure) conditions change sharply, ultimately forming Jiaodong gold-mineralized area.

3. Ore Deposit Geology

The Moshan gold deposit is situated within the Queshan granite, located on the western flank of the Muru ore concentration area. The local geology is characterized by relatively simple stratigraphy but intense tectonic and magmatic activity, which has created favorable conditions for mineralization [5,6,12]. Excluding Quaternary alluvial and pluvial deposits, the dominant stratigraphic unit is Neoarchean TTG gneiss, occurring as xenoliths within the granite, with minor lenses of lamprophyre and diorite porphyrite dike (Figure 2a). The strata strike 35–55° with a NW dip (60–70° dip angle). Structural features are dominated by five major NNE-NE trending fault systems, with the F4 fault being the primary ore-controlling structure, controlling the development of the No. IV main orebody [5,6]. Located centrally within the mining area, F4 has a surface exposure of >1200 m long, striking about 15° with a SE dip (42–85° dip angle, Figure 2a). The fault plane exhibits smooth, gently undulating geometry along strike and dip, displaying alteration features (e.g., silicification) and minor silicified quartz veins [5,6]. The magmatic rocks are mainly Queshan granite, which is weakly gneissic, fine-medium-grained garnet-bearing monzogranite. The rock is grayish white to light reddish, with a medium-grained structure and a weakly gneissic-massive structure. The dykes mainly include lamprophyre, diorite porphyrite, and granodiorite dykes (Figure 2a).
Fifteen gold orebodies have been delineated in the Moshan gold deposit, among which one main orebody (IV-1) and three secondary orebodies (IV-2, IV-3, and III-2) have economic significance, with a cumulative proven gold metal reserve of 15 tons [5,6,34]. The gold resource of the IV-1 main orebody accounts for 67.07% of the total resource of the deposit. The orebody is vein-shaped, with local swelling and contraction phenomena [34]. Lithology is mainly pyrite-sericitized granitic cataclasite intercalated with quartz veins, and the occurrence is consistent with the F4 fault, with a general strike of 15° (Figure 2b). The length delineated by drilling data is 570 m. The thickness of the orebody ranges from 0.24 to 6.02 m, with an average thickness of 1.84 m, and the gold grade ranges from 1.03 to 83.29 ppm, with an average grade of 10.23 ppm [34]. The IV-2 orebody is located in the hanging wall of the IV-1 orebody, and their occurrences are also relatively consistent (Figure 2b). The thickness of the orebody is 0.62–4.81 m, with an average thickness of 1.75 m, and the gold grade ranges from 1.02 to 112.98 ppm, with an average grade of 12.53 ppm [34]. The IV-3 orebody is hosted in the southern section of the F4 fault, showing a vein shape, and its occurrence is consistent with the fault occurrence (Figure 2a). The thickness of the orebody is 0.37–5.14 m, with an average thickness of 1.39 m, and the gold grade ranges from 1.00 to 11.09 ppm, with an average grade of 2.74 ppm [34]. The III-2 orebody is hosted in the northern section of the F3 fault (Figure 2a), and the lithology of the orebody is mainly pyrite-sericitized granitic cataclasite and pyrite–sericite schist, showing a vein shape. The thickness of the orebody is 0.68–1.97 m, with an average thickness of 1.47 m, and the gold grade ranges from 1.94 to 24.62 ppm, with an average grade of 11.66 ppm [34].
Ore minerals are dominated by sulfides, primarily pyrite, with minor marcasite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite (Figure 3). Gangue minerals include quartz, sericite, and calcite.
Based on mineral assemblages, paragenetic relationships, cross-cutting textures, and previous studies, three metallogenic stages are defined. ① Auriferous quartz-coarse-grained pyrite stage (Stage I), with the mineral assemblage including quartz, pyrite, native gold, and sericite. At this stage, quartz and pyrite form a symbiotic edge structure. Pyrite is well-crystallized, generally coarse-grained, mostly euhedral, massive, and occasionally galena and sphalerite fill along fractures, which is a secondary metallogenic stage of gold. ② Auriferous quartz–pyrite–polymetallic sulfide stage (Stage II), the mineral assemblage includes pyrite, marcasite, galena, sphalerite, and quartz, which is the formation stage of polymetallic sulfides and the main metallogenic stage of gold. ③ Pyrite–carbonate stage (Stage III), the mineral assemblage includes calcite, pyrite, siderite, and quartz. No gold precipitation occurred at this stage. Calcite occurs as subhedral granular forms, quartz as subhedral crystalline granular forms, and siderite as veinlet-like, which is the late metallogenic stage.

4. Sampling and Analytical Methods

Studied samples were collected from drill hole 3ZK2 on exploration line 3, spanning depths from −95 to −113 m within the Moshan deposit’s IV-1 orebody. Pyrite samples from different stages were prepared as polished sections for ore microscopy and petrographic observation. For analytical measurements, pyrite grains with clear grain boundaries, no obvious cracks or inclusions, and no significant surface alteration or mineral replacement were selected. These grains represent the typical textures of each metallogenic stage (euhedral crystal for Stage I, anhedral granular for Stage II and III) to ensure the representativeness of the analytical data.
Both polarizing microscope and electron microprobe (EPMA) analysis were conducted in the Key Laboratory of Gold Mineralization Processes and Resource Utilization, Ministry of Natural Resources, China. The microscope model is Axio Scope A1, with objectives of 2.5×, 5×, 10×, 20×, 50×, and an eyepiece of 10×. The observation methods are transmitted light and reflected light. The electron microprobe model is JEOL JXA-8230. The accelerating voltage used for wavelength dispersive spectrometry is 15 kV, the current is 2 × 10−8 A, and the beam diameter is 1 μm. The standard samples used are Canadian Astimex series standards as follows: pyrite (S, Fe), galena (Pb), sphalerite (Zn), cinnabar (Hg), stibnite (Sb), bismuth selenide (Bi, Se), cuprite (Cu), arsenopyrite (As), pentlandite (Ni), gold (Au), silver (Ag) and cobalt (Co). Counting times were 20 s for peak and 10 s for background for all analyzed elements, with 30 s for Au, Ag, and Co. For spot analyses, they were performed point by point from one end to the other along the pyrite cross-section. Element mapping was carried out for Ag, Au, As, Fe, and S in representative areas. The laboratory environment temperature was 22 °C, and the humidity is 30%. Under the above analytical conditions, the detection limits (wt%) were as follows: S 0.015, Fe 0.01, Pb 0.02, Zn 0.02, Hg 0.03, Sb 0.03, Bi 0.02, Se 0.02, Cu 0.03, As 0.03, Ni 0.04, Co 0.03, Te 0.03, Au 0.03, and Ag 0.03.
In situ sulfur isotope determination of pyrite was performed in the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan). For this purpose, we used a laser ablation-multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-MC-ICP-MS) instrument. The laser ablation system is Resolution S-155, and the MC-ICP-MS is a Nu Plasma II. During laser ablation, helium is used as carrier gas and argon as compensation gas to adjust the sensitivity. The two are mixed through a T-junction before entering the ICP. The laser wavelength is 193 nm, the beam size is 33 μm, the pulse frequency is 10 Hz, and the energy density is 3–5 mJ/cm2. During the analyses, blank collection is performed for 30 s first, and then continuous ablation collection of the sample is performed for 40 s. The standard-sample cross method was used for the determination and correction of sample δ34S values, which represent the relative difference between the 34S/32S isotopic ratio of a sample and that of the Canyon Diablo Troilite (CDT) standard, expressed in per mil (‰) according to the formula: δ34S (‰) = [(34S/32S)sample/(34S/32S)CDT − 1] × 1000. The standard samples used are USGS NBS-127 sphalerite and laboratory internal pyrite WS-1, with an analytical precision of ±0.5‰. Analytical protocol follows Liu et al. (2018) [35].

5. Results

5.1. Pyrite Microtextural Characteristics

Microscopic analysis reveals that pyrite in the Moshan gold deposit predominantly displays cataclastic and euhedral–subhedral textures. Both rounded and cubic pyrite morphologies are developed, with associated sulfides including galena and sphalerite in symbiotic association (Figure 4). Pyrite from stage I is a cubic euhedral crystal (Py1), with clear grain boundaries and few internal fractures (Figure 4a). Pyrite from stage II includes cubic euhedral crystals (Py1) and irregular anhedral granular (Py2). According to the cleanliness of the mineral surface, the irregular anhedral granular pyrite (Py2) can be further divided into Py2a type with a relatively smooth and flat surface (Figure 4b,c), and Py2b type with more surface pits (Figure 4d,e). Visible gold is mainly filled inside Py2a type pyrite in the form of inclusions or developed along pyrite grain fractures. Pyrite from stage III is mainly irregular, anhedral granular (Py2) (Figure 4f).

5.2. Electron Probe Microanalysis Results of Pyrite

A total of 24 electron probe microanalyses (EPMA) were performed on pyrite from the Moshan gold deposit (Table 1).
For stage I (Table 1), eight points were performed for cubic euhedral pyrite (Py1). The contents of ω(Fe), ω(S), and ω(As) are 46.237%–46.535%, 52.378%–53.577%, and 0.083%–0.386%, with average values of 46.397%, 52.926%, and 0.211% respectively; it contains a small amount of Co, Ni, Pb, Bi and Au, 0.034%–0.080%, 0.040%–0.169%, 0.025%–0.167%, 0.042%–0.170%, and 0.031%–0.039% respectively; and it also contains trace amounts of Cu, Zn, Ti, and Ag.
For stage II (Table 1), eight points were carried out for anhedral granular pyrite (Py2). The contents of ω(Fe), ω(S), and ω(As) are 46.251%–47.331%, 52.144%–53.027%, and 0.090%–0.658%, with average values of 46.713%, 52.686%, and 0.397% respectively; it contains a small amount of Co, Ni, Bi and Au, 0.047%–0.220%, 0.053%–0.177%, 0.090%–0.280%, and 0.030%–0.058% respectively; and it contains trace amounts of Pb, Cu, Zn, Ti, and Ag.
For stage III (Table 1), eight points were analyzed for anhedral granular pyrite (Py2). The contents of ω(Fe), ω(S), and ω(As) are 46.145%–46.311%, 52.003%–52.895%, and 0.030%–0.155%, with average values of 46.247%, 52.466%, and 0.082% respectively; it contains a small amount of Co, Ni and Pb, 0.048%–0.181%, 0.040%–0.113%, and 0.045%–0.163% respectively; and it contains trace amounts of Pb, Cu, Zn, Ti, Au, and Ag.

5.3. Element Mapping Analysis Results of Pyrite

Electron probe element mapping was performed on two representative pyrite samples to characterize internal textures and spatial distributions of Ag, Au, As, Fe, and S (Figure 5).
Au and Ag elements show weak signals and uniform distribution, with no obvious high-brightness enrichment areas (Figure 5b,c,h,i). The As elemental mapping results show that in the pyrite (Py1) from the auriferous quartz-coarse-grained pyrite stage, the As has a large tone contrast between the core and the edge of the crystal (Figure 5d). The tones of the Fe and S elemental maps are basically consistent, and there is no obvious difference in Fe and S contents in pyrite of each metallogenic stage (Figure 5e,f,k,l), and no obvious enrichment or depletion patches, indicating that the pyrite crystal structure is relatively complete.

5.4. In Situ Sulfur Isotope Composition of Pyrite

A total of 30 in situ sulfur isotope results of pyrite were obtained in this study, and the detailed composition results are shown in Table 2. Overall, the δ34S values of pyrite have a narrow variation range (7.11‰–9.40‰), with an average value of 8.00‰, all highly homogeneous and exhibit positive δ34S values relative to the V-CDT standard [36,37,38], showing high sulfur homogenization and slight enrichment of δ34S.

6. Discussion

6.1. Gold Occurrence State in Pyrite

Microscopic observation and electron probe mapping analysis results show that the occurrence forms of gold in the Moshan gold deposit are diverse (Figure 4), including visible inclusion gold (filled inside Py2a type pyrite), fracture gold (distributed along pyrite grain fractures), and widely distributed invisible gold [39,40]. The occurrence states of invisible gold in pyrite are mainly divided into the following two types: one is nano-particle gold existing as Au0, and the other is solid solution gold (or lattice gold) incorporated into the pyrite lattice as Au+ [40,41,42,43,44]. The discrimination between the two is of great significance for revealing the migration and precipitation mechanism of gold [43,44]. Since Py2a-type pyrite is identified as the main ore-bearing mineral formed in the main metallogenic stage, the inclusion of visible gold within it indicates that gold precipitation was synchronous with the crystallization of Py2a-type pyrite, rather than a product of later superimposed alteration [41,43]. This synchronous relationship further confirms that the gold-bearing fluid was closely associated with the formation of Py2a-type pyrite, and the precipitation of gold was triggered by changes in physicochemical conditions during the crystallization of pyrite. In contrast, the visible fracture gold distributed along pyrite grain fractures reflects the late-stage modification process of the deposit after the formation of Py2a-type pyrite. The formation of pyrite fractures is usually related to regional tectonic activities or post-metallogenic fluid movement; the migration of late-stage hydrothermal fluid along these fractures led to the secondary precipitation of gold, forming fracture gold [8,16]. This phenomenon indicates that the Moshan gold deposit experienced multi-stage metallogenic activities, and the late-stage tectonic movement and fluid activity further enriched the gold mineralization, which is an important supplement to the main metallogenic process.
Previous systematic studies on arsenian pyrite in typical American Carlin-type gold deposits proposed a wedge-shaped relationship model for Au-As distribution, that is, the occurrence state of invisible gold can be effectively distinguished by the limiting line equation CAu = 0.02 × CAs + 4 × 10−5 (where CAu and CAs are the mass concentrations of gold and arsenic in arsenian pyrite, respectively) [40]. When data points fall above the boundary line, the invisible gold primarily exists as nano-particle gold (Au0); when data points fall below the boundary line, it primarily exists as lattice gold/solid solution gold (Au+) [40,41]. Given that stage III represents the late metallogenic stage with no gold precipitation, its trace Au concentrations are uniformly below the detection limit (Table 1). Therefore, the data from metallogenic stages I and II are incorporated into the wedge-shaped correlation model of Au-As distribution for analysis (Figure 6). The results show that all data points are concentrated in the “Au0 nano-particle gold” area above the solubility line, and far away from the limiting line, indicating that the occurrence state of invisible gold in the Moshan gold deposit is mainly nano-particle gold. In addition, electron probe mapping shows that Au is uniformly distributed with weak signals (Figure 5), without obvious high-brightness enrichment areas, which also confirms that invisible gold is uniformly dispersed in pyrite in the form of nano-particles, rather than forming independent minerals through large-scale concentrated enrichment [45,46].

6.2. Genesis of Gold-Bearing Pyrite

Having established that gold synchronously precipitated with specific pyrite types (Py2a), understanding the geochemical genesis of this host pyrite is critical for tracing the ore-forming environment. The major element composition of pyrite (especially S, Fe contents, and their ratio) is an important typomorphic feature, reflecting its formation environment and genetic type. The mass fraction of major and trace elements in geological samples refers to the ratio of the mass of a given element to the total mass of the sample. It is conventionally expressed in weight percent (wt%) for major elements and parts per million (ppm, μg/g) for trace elements, and is widely used to characterize elemental abundances and geochemical signatures [47,48]. The atomic abundances of Fe and S in pyrite, as well as the deviation degree of their mass fractions, can be calculated based on the measured Fe and S contents. The theoretical composition of standard pyrite is ω(Fe) = 46.55%, ω(S) = 53.45%, and the S/Fe atomic ratio is 2.0 (chemical formula FeS2) [49]. Due to factors such as isomorphous substitution of trace elements and changes in fluid properties during the metallogenic process, the S and Fe contents of pyrite in natural gold deposits often deviate from the theoretical values. According to the S/Fe atomic ratio, it can be divided into sulfur-deficient type (S/Fe < 2) and iron-deficient type (S/Fe > 2) [49,50]. Among them, sulfur-deficient pyrite is mostly related to hydrothermal activities, while the iron-deficient type is common in sedimentary or metamorphic environments [49].
To accurately characterize the deviation degree of major elements in pyrite from the Moshan gold deposit relative to their theoretical contents, the δFe and δS typomorphic parameters are employed in this study [11,51,52,53]. These parameters quantitatively reflect the extent to which the measured Fe and S contents depart from the stoichiometric composition of ideal pyrite (FeS2). The δFe and δS values are calculated using the following formulas [51,52,53], where ω(Fe) and ω(S) represent the measured mass fractions of Fe and S in pyrite, respectively:
δFe = ((100 × ω(Fe) − 46.55)/46.55) × 100
δS = ((100 × ω(S) − 53.45)/53.45) × 100
A positive δFe value indicates Fe enrichment relative to ideal pyrite, whereas a negative value indicates Fe depletion. Similarly, a positive δS value denotes S enrichment, and a negative value denotes S depletion [52,53]. These parameters have been widely used as important typomorphic indices to constrain the physicochemical conditions, crystallization processes, and metallogenic implications of pyrite in hydrothermal ore deposits [52,53]. The average ω(Fe) of pyrite from the Moshan gold deposit is 46.452%, the average ω(S) is 52.693%, the S/Fe atomic ratio ranges from 1.919 to 2.017, with an average of 1.976, and the chemical formula can be expressed as FeS1.919–FeS2.017 (average FeS1.976), showing an overall slight sulfur deficiency (S/Fe < 2). The δFe-δS plotting results (Table 3, Figure 7a) show that most of the data points fall into the magmatic-hydrothermal gold deposit area. The S-Fe content distribution diagram (Figure 7b) shows that pyrite points are mainly concentrated in the S-deficient and Fe-deficient area of the III quadrant, and a small number of points are distributed in the II and IV quadrants, and the points are relatively scattered, indicating that the physical and chemical conditions of the hydrothermal system fluctuated during the metallogenic process, leading to certain differences in the S and Fe contents of pyrite, but the overall main feature is slight deficiency.
A comparative analysis of the major element characteristics of pyrite from genetically distinct gold deposits reveals the following features: pyrite from magmatic-hydrothermal gold deposits generally exhibits slight depletion in S and Fe, with average contents of ω(S) = 52.66% and ω(Fe) = 45.90% [52]. In contrast, pyrite from metamorphic-hydrothermal gold deposits shows Fe enrichment coupled with S depletion, averaging ω(S) = 52.72% and ω(Fe) = 46.76% [52]. Pyrite from Carlin-type gold deposits displays marked depletion in both S and Fe, with average values of ω(S) = 51.03% and ω(Fe) = 44.86% [52]. The S/Fe atomic ratio of syngenetic sedimentary pyrite typically exceeds two, whereas a ratio below two indicates a hydrothermal origin [54,55]. The sulfur and iron contents, along with the atomic S/Fe ratio of pyrite from the Moshan gold deposit, align closely with those characteristic of magmatic-hydrothermal gold deposits. This consistency supports a magmatic-hydrothermal genetic affinity for the pyrite in this deposit.
In addition, Py1 type pyrite from stage I is a cubic euhedral crystal with high crystallization degree and few internal fractures, and the S and Fe contents are relatively close to the theoretical values, reflecting that it was formed in a relatively stable hydrothermal environment, while Py2 type pyrite (including Py2a and Py2b) from stage II is irregular anhedral granular, with large fluctuations in S and Fe contents, and the contents of metallogenic elements such as As and Au are significantly higher than those of Py1 type, indicating that the hydrothermal system underwent intense material exchange and changes in physical and chemical conditions during the main metallogenic stage, which may be related to hydrothermal mixing or decompression boiling caused by tectonic activities. The S and Fe contents of Py2 type pyrite from stage III further decreased, and the As and Au contents significantly decreased, indicating that the metallogenic capacity of the hydrothermal system had been greatly weakened at this time, and gold precipitation basically stopped.

6.3. Source of Ore-Forming Material

The S/Fe stoichiometry and typomorphic parameters strongly indicate a magmatic-hydrothermal affinity for the Moshan pyrite. To further constrain the specific origin of these magmatic fluids, in situ sulfur isotopic compositions were evaluated. Sulfur isotope is an effective tracer for determining the source of metallogenic materials. LA-MC-ICP-MS in situ sulfur isotope analysis shows that the δ34S values of pyrite from the Moshan gold deposit are concentrated in +7.11‰ to +9.40‰, with an average value of +8.00‰. The δ34S values of the three metallogenic stages are not significantly different, showing a narrow range distribution and positive high δ34S value characteristics, and high sulfur homogenization, indicating that the sulfur in the ore-forming fluid has a relatively single source and is not strongly disturbed by multi-source sulfur mixing.
Comparing the sulfur isotope compositions of major geological units in the Jiaodong gold-mineralized area (Figure 8), the δ34S value distribution range of pyrite from the Moshan gold deposit is highly consistent with that of Late Jurassic granite, but there is a certain difference from that of Paleoproterozoic metamorphic basement rocks (such as Jiaodong Group) (the δ34S values of basement rocks are mostly lower than 5‰) [56,57,58,59]. This indicates that the sulfur in the ore-forming fluid is mainly derived from Mesozoic granite magmatic hydrothermal fluids, rather than the direct contribution of basement metamorphic rocks. At the same time, the δ34S value is slightly higher than that of typical mantle sulfur (δ34S values concentrated in 0–3‰) [47,60,61], which may reflect that the magma was contaminated by a small amount of crustal materials during the evolution process, or the magmatic hydrothermal fluid had weak isotope exchange with the wall rock, but the main source of sulfur was not changed.
While the occurrence of visible gold reveals the multi-stage nature of the deposit’s metallogenic process, the geochemical composition of pyrite provides further constraints on the nature of the ore-forming fluids. The concentrations of base metals such as Cu, Zn, and Pb are generally low (mostly <0.1 wt%, though Pb occasionally slightly exceeds this), indicating that the ore-forming fluid had a low affinity for these elements. Conversely, volatile trace elements like Bi are slightly enriched in stage II pyrite (i.e., Py2a-type pyrite, the main ore-forming stage). This suggests that during the primary mineralization period, the hydrothermal system was enriched in volatile components and underwent intense material exchange, creating conditions highly favorable for gold precipitation.
The trace element signature of pyrite also offers crucial insights into the material source. Co and Ni are sensitive indicators of magmatic activity, and their concentrations and ratios are routinely used to trace metal provenance [59,65]. The Co/Ni ratios of pyrite from the Moshan gold deposit are mostly close to one (Table 1, Figure 9a), which aligns with the magmatic origin signature (Co/Ni ≈ 1). In contrast, sedimentary pyrite typically has Co/Ni ratios < 1, while hydrothermal pyrite shows a wide range (1.17–5) [65,66,67,68,69]. Additionally, the As content in pyrite from the main metallogenic stage is significantly elevated (averaging 0.397 wt%). As a typical indicator element for magmatic-hydrothermal activity, the enrichment of As is generally associated with the accumulation of volatile components during magma evolution [70,71,72]. Finally, the Co-Ni-As ternary plot (Table 4, Figure 9b) illustrates that most pyrite samples fall within the magmatic gold deposit fields, reinforcing the conclusion that the metallogenic materials were primarily derived from a magmatic-hydrothermal system.

6.4. Metallogenic Depth

Beyond fluid sources, the physicochemical conditions—specifically the depth of mineralization—play a vital role in controlling the intense precipitation of gold and volatile elements observed in stage II. Metallogenic depth is an important parameter of ore-forming conditions, which directly affects the physical and chemical properties of ore-forming fluids (such as temperature, pressure, density, etc.) and the migration and precipitation mechanism of gold and has important guiding significance for prospecting and exploration. Previous studies have shown that the Fe/(S + As) value in pyrite has a significant correlation with the deposit formation depth (correlation coefficient about 0.87), among which the above ratios of pyrite in hypabyssal, mesothermal, and epithermal environments are 0.846, 0.863, and 0.926, respectively [73,74]. The essence of this correlation is that the oxygen fugacity and sulfur fugacity of the hydrothermal system are different under different depth environments, leading to different degrees of isomorphous substitution of As in pyrite, thereby affecting the Fe/(S + As) value [74].
By calculating the Fe/(S + As) value of pyrite from the Moshan gold deposit, the results show that it ranges from 0.864 to 0.905, with an average value of 0.880, which is between the critical values of mesothermal and epithermal environments, indicating that the metallogenic depth of the Moshan gold deposit is a mesothermal-epithermal environment. The mesothermal-epithermal metallogenic depth characteristics of the Moshan gold deposit may be related to the regional tectonic evolution stage. In the late Mesozoic, the Jiaodong area was in an extensional tectonic environment, and crustal uplift was significant, leading to a relatively shallow metallogenic depth [75,76]. At the same time, the relatively shallow metallogenic depth may also be one of the important reasons for the high gold grade of the Moshan gold deposit (average grade 10.23 ppm), because the decompression boiling of the hydrothermal system is more intense in the shallow environment, which is conducive to the rapid precipitation and enrichment of gold [77].

6.5. Metallogenic Mechanism

The Moshan gold deposit is controlled by the secondary branch structure (F4 fault) of the Muping–Jimo fault zone. As one of the six major trunk ore-controlling faults in the region, the Muping–Jimo fault has experienced multiple stages of activity, providing key channels and ore-hosting spaces for the migration and unloading of ore-bearing hydrothermal fluids. The Queshan granite, as the direct host rock, was formed by partial melting of the crust caused by the subduction of the Pacific Plate [78,79]. During the magma evolution process, a large amount of gold and other metallogenic elements were accumulated, forming an ore-rich magmatic hydrothermal system.
In terms of deposit genetic type, the δFe-δS typomorphic parameters, S/Fe ratio, Co/Ni ratio, and Co-Ni-As ternary system plotting of pyrite all show that the deposit has magmatic-hydrothermal genesis characteristics. At the same time, the metallogenic depth is mesothermal-epithermal, and there is a gold precipitation mechanism caused by decompression boiling, which has certain similarities with some characteristics of epithermal gold deposits. However, the sulfur isotope composition, trace element characteristics, and mineral assemblage of pyrite (without epithermal characteristic minerals such as adularia and alunite) are significantly different from those of typical epithermal gold deposits [77,80]. Therefore, the genetic type of the Moshan gold deposit should be defined as a magmatic-hydrothermal gold deposit, and its metallogenic process is jointly controlled by magmatic hydrothermal activities and tectonic activities, belonging to a tectonic-magmatic-hydrothermal composite gold deposit.
In summary, the genetic model of the Moshan gold deposit can be briefly outlined as follows: during the Late Mesozoic, the subduction of the Pacific Plate triggered the partial melting of the regional crust, forming the Queshan granite, which acts as the main host rock [78,79]. During the continuous evolution and crystallization of the magma, a large amount of volatile components and ore-forming elements (such as Au and As) accumulated, exsolving an ore-rich magmatic-hydrothermal fluid [70,71,72]. Concurrently, the Muping–Jimo fault zone experienced multi-stage activities; its derived secondary faults (such as the F4 fault) provided not only core channels for the long-distance migration of the fluids but also critical spaces for orebody emplacement [5,6]. As the deep, high-temperature ore-bearing hydrothermal fluid migrated along the fault zone to a mid-shallow environment, the extensional tectonic setting caused a sudden pressure drop, triggering intense decompression boiling [75,76,77]. This abrupt change in physicochemical conditions destabilized the complexes in the hydrothermal fluid, leading to the massive precipitation and rapid enrichment of gold (primarily as nano-particulate Au0) and pyrite-dominated sulfides within favorable fault fractures [40,41]. Ultimately, this process formed a composite gold deposit jointly controlled by tectonic, magmatic, and hydrothermal processes.

7. Conclusions

Based on the systematic investigation of mineralogy, trace elements, and in situ sulfur isotopes of pyrite from the Moshan gold deposit, the main conclusions are as follows:
Gold in the ores exhibits multiple forms of occurrence, primarily including visible inclusion gold, fracture gold, and widely distributed invisible gold. The quantitative relationship model of the Au-As system confirms that the invisible gold predominantly exists as nano-particulate gold (Au0) within the pyrite. Major element analysis indicates that the pyrite generally displays a slight sulfur deficiency, with an average S/Fe atomic ratio of 1.976.
The δFe-δS typomorphic parameters of the pyrite, the Co/Ni ratio approaching one, and the projection of the Co-Ni-As ternary system all consistently point to a magmatic-hydrothermal origin for the deposit. The in situ sulfur isotopes show a narrow distribution and high homogeneity. This indicates that the ore-forming materials (especially sulfur) are predominantly derived from magmatic-hydrothermal fluids associated with the Mesozoic Queshan granite.
The Fe/(S + As) values in the pyrite (averaging 0.878) effectively constrain the physicochemical state of the fluid, indicating that the Moshan gold deposit formed in a mesothermal-epithermal depth environment. Integrating the ore-controlling factors and metallogenic mechanisms, the formation of this deposit is jointly controlled by tectonic and magmatic-hydrothermal activities, classifying it genetically as a tectonic-magmatic-hydrothermal composite gold deposit.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.Z. and J.T.; methodology, J.T.; investigation, F.Z., Z.L., T.T., P.G., B.L. and Y.Q.; resources, Z.L.; data curation, F.Z., T.T., P.G., Y.Q. and P.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, F.Z., Z.L., T.T., P.G. and B.L.; writing—review and editing, F.Z., H.L. and J.T.; project administration, J.T.; funding acquisition, J.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was financially supported by the Shandong Provincial Natural Science Foundation, China (No. ZR2025QC426), the Open Fund of Shandong Engineering Research Center of Underground Resources and Environment High Precision Detection/Shandong Engineering Research Center of Underground Resources and Environment High Precision Detection (No. KY2025005), and the Doctoral Research Foundation of Shandong Jianzhu University (No. X21005Z).

Data Availability Statement

All data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Regional distribution and simplified geological map of the Jiaodong Peninsula (modified after [10,12]). (a) The tectonic division for the Jiaodong Peninsula between the North China Craton and the Sulu orogen along the Tan-Lu Fault, (b) simplified geology in the Jiaodong Peninsula.
Figure 1. Regional distribution and simplified geological map of the Jiaodong Peninsula (modified after [10,12]). (a) The tectonic division for the Jiaodong Peninsula between the North China Craton and the Sulu orogen along the Tan-Lu Fault, (b) simplified geology in the Jiaodong Peninsula.
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Figure 2. Geological map of the Moshan gold deposit (a) and the exploration line profile of the deposit (b) (modified after [12]).
Figure 2. Geological map of the Moshan gold deposit (a) and the exploration line profile of the deposit (b) (modified after [12]).
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Minerals 16 00344 g003
Figure 3. Drill Core Rock of ore minerals and structural combination (f-k). (a) Gold ore. (b) Core sample of silicified granite with coarse-grained pyrite veins (Stage I). (c) Core sample of pyrite–sericite altered rock (Stage I). (d) Core sample with quartz–pyrite–polymetallic sulfide veins (Stage II). (e) Core sample with pyrite–carbonate veins (Sd, Cal) (Stage III). Abbreviations: Qtz: quartz, Py: pyrite, Gn: galena, Sd: siderite, Cal: calcite.
Figure 3. Drill Core Rock of ore minerals and structural combination (f-k). (a) Gold ore. (b) Core sample of silicified granite with coarse-grained pyrite veins (Stage I). (c) Core sample of pyrite–sericite altered rock (Stage I). (d) Core sample with quartz–pyrite–polymetallic sulfide veins (Stage II). (e) Core sample with pyrite–carbonate veins (Sd, Cal) (Stage III). Abbreviations: Qtz: quartz, Py: pyrite, Gn: galena, Sd: siderite, Cal: calcite.
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Figure 4. Reflected light photomicrography of ore minerals and structural combination. (a) Euhedral pyrite crystals (Py1) formed during stage I. (b) Irregular anhedral granular pyrite (Py2a) developed in stage II, with smooth surfaces and enclosed gold. (c) Irregular anhedral granular pyrite (Py2a) developed in stage II, with smooth surfaces and gold in fracture. (d) Relatively fractured subhedral-anhedral pyrite (Py2b), with various sulfides such as Mc, Gn and Sp developed around it (stage II). (e) Py2b-type pyrite shows cataclastic texture, with numerous surface pits, with Sp developed at the margins (stage II). (f) Anhedral pyrite (Py2) in stage III, with Cal grains developed in the fractures. Abbreviations: Qtz: quartz, Au: gold, Py: pyrite, Gn: galena, Sp: sphalerite, Mc: marcasite, Cal: calcite.
Figure 4. Reflected light photomicrography of ore minerals and structural combination. (a) Euhedral pyrite crystals (Py1) formed during stage I. (b) Irregular anhedral granular pyrite (Py2a) developed in stage II, with smooth surfaces and enclosed gold. (c) Irregular anhedral granular pyrite (Py2a) developed in stage II, with smooth surfaces and gold in fracture. (d) Relatively fractured subhedral-anhedral pyrite (Py2b), with various sulfides such as Mc, Gn and Sp developed around it (stage II). (e) Py2b-type pyrite shows cataclastic texture, with numerous surface pits, with Sp developed at the margins (stage II). (f) Anhedral pyrite (Py2) in stage III, with Cal grains developed in the fractures. Abbreviations: Qtz: quartz, Au: gold, Py: pyrite, Gn: galena, Sp: sphalerite, Mc: marcasite, Cal: calcite.
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Figure 5. Element mapping by EPMA of the pyrites from Moshan gold deposit. Abbreviations: Py: pyrite, Qtz: quartz.
Figure 5. Element mapping by EPMA of the pyrites from Moshan gold deposit. Abbreviations: Py: pyrite, Qtz: quartz.
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Figure 6. Au-As diagram of the pyrites from Moshan gold deposit (modified from [40]).
Figure 6. Au-As diagram of the pyrites from Moshan gold deposit (modified from [40]).
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Minerals 16 00344 g007
Figure 7. δFe-δS characteristics of pyrites from the Moshan gold deposit (a) and the correlation between contents of S and Fe (b).
Figure 7. δFe-δS characteristics of pyrites from the Moshan gold deposit (a) and the correlation between contents of S and Fe (b).
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Figure 8. The sulfur isotope compositions of pyrite from Moshan gold deposit as well as those of other geological units in Jiaodong. The intermediate-basic dikes complex δ34S data from [62]. The Early Cretaceous granitic complex δ34S data from [58]. The Late Jurassic granitic complex δ34S data from [58,63]. The Jingshan group δ34S data from [56]. The Jiaodong group δ34S data from [57,58,59,64].
Figure 8. The sulfur isotope compositions of pyrite from Moshan gold deposit as well as those of other geological units in Jiaodong. The intermediate-basic dikes complex δ34S data from [62]. The Early Cretaceous granitic complex δ34S data from [58]. The Late Jurassic granitic complex δ34S data from [58,63]. The Jingshan group δ34S data from [56]. The Jiaodong group δ34S data from [57,58,59,64].
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Figure 9. Co-Ni ratio diagram (a) and Co-Ni-As ternary system (b) of pyrite in Moshan gold deposit.
Figure 9. Co-Ni ratio diagram (a) and Co-Ni-As ternary system (b) of pyrite in Moshan gold deposit.
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Table 1. EMPA data of pyrite from the Moshan gold deposit.
Table 1. EMPA data of pyrite from the Moshan gold deposit.
StageSample Number ω(B)/%
CoNiCuZnPbAsAuAgBiFeSTotal
IMS24-32-1b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.n.d.b.d.l. 46.23752.74198.978
MS24-32-20.034b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.0.025b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.0.07046.31153.36299.802
MS24-32-30.0590.1690.044b.d.l.0.0910.167b.d.l.b.d.l.0.17046.48153.014100.195
MS24-32-40.0780.040b.d.l.n.d.0.1570.3860.031b.d.l.0.07746.50152.37899.648
MS24-32-5b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.0.0220.0260.132b.d.l.b.d.l.0.04246.52452.59599.341
MS24-32-60.0800.077b.d.l.b.d.l.0.1670.2870.0390.0020.07546.53552.49799.759
MS24-32-70.034b.d.l.b.d.l.0.028b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.0.06046.24853.57799.947
MS24-32-8b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.0.083b.d.l.b.d.l.0.05046.34153.24399.717
IIMS24-34-1b.d.l.0.053b.d.l.b.d.l.0.0380.6580.033b.d.l.0.13046.51752.881100.310
MS24-34-2b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.0.0270.3370.040b.d.l.0.18046.82952.608100.021
MS24-34-30.0950.046b.d.l.0.0210.0310.1370.050b.d.l.0.11047.33152.14499.965
MS24-34-4b.d.l.0.056b.d.l.0.0300.0370.2720.0580.0020.11047.21552.411100.191
MS24-34-50.0470.1730.0560.0570.0310.5220.0300.0030.10046.43053.021100.470
MS24-34-60.089b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.0.0300.090b.d.l.0.0020.09046.81052.65799.768
MS24-34-70.1150.107b.d.l.0.0710.0830.519b.d.l.0.0020.28046.25153.027100.455
MS24-34-80.2200.1770.0810.0790.0440.638b.d.l.b.d.l.0.09346.31952.740100.391
IIIMS24-35-10.1810.1130.0330.0760.0450.030b.d.l.b.d.l.0.23046.24852.45499.415
MS24-35-2b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.0.032b.d.l.b.d.l.n.d.b.d.l.0.54046.25552.35699.183
MS24-35-30.1590.040b.d.l.0.0890.0290.066b.d.l.b.d.l.0.12046.31152.43699.250
MS24-35-40.048b.d.l.b.d.l.0.0310.0800.047b.d.l.b.d.l.0.13046.27852.00398.617
MS24-35-50.082b.d.l.0.0920.0240.028b.d.l.n.d.b.d.l.0.18046.25552.62299.283
MS24-35-60.060b.d.l.b.d.l.0.0270.074b.d.l.n.d.b.d.l.0.10046.29752.89599.453
MS24-35-7b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.b.d.l.0.1630.113b.d.l.b.d.l.0.07746.18952.48999.031
MS24-35-80.0800.0650.0420.0530.1330.155b.d.l.b.d.l.0.05046.14552.47699.199
Abbreviations: n.d.: not detected; b.d.l.: below detection limit.
Table 2. Sulfur isotope analysis results of pyrite in different mineralization stages.
Table 2. Sulfur isotope analysis results of pyrite in different mineralization stages.
StageSample Number δ34SV-CDT (‰)StageSample Number δ34SV-CDT (‰)
IMS24-32-18.43 IIMS24-34-67.60
MS24-32-28.30 MS24-34-77.33
MS24-32-38.51 MS24-34-88.51
MS24-32-49.40 MS24-34-98.42
MS24-32-57.66 MS24-34-108.61
MS24-32-68.78 IIIMS24-35-17.97
MS24-32-78.16 MS24-35-28.12
MS24-32-88.51 MS24-35-37.58
MS24-32-98.52 MS24-35-47.55
MS24-32-108.70 MS24-35-58.00
IIMS24-34-17.33 MS24-35-67.55
MS24-34-27.32 MS24-35-77.36
MS24-34-37.25 MS24-35-88.10
MS24-34-47.57 MS24-35-97.11
MS24-34-57.49 MS24-35-108.28
Table 3. Fe, S content and δFe-δS characteristics of pyrites from the Moshan gold deposits.
Table 3. Fe, S content and δFe-δS characteristics of pyrites from the Moshan gold deposits.
ComponentData StyleStage IStage IIStage III
ω(Fe)/%Minimum46.23746.25146.145
Maximum46.53547.33146.311
Average46.39746.71346.247
ω(S)/%Minimum52.37852.14452.003
Maximum53.57753.02752.895
Average52.92652.68652.466
δFeMinimum−0.672−0.642−0.870
Maximum−0.0321.678−0.513
Average−0.3280.350−0.650
δSMinimum−2.006−2.443−2.707
Maximum0.238−0.791−1.038
Average−0.981−1.429−1.840
Table 4. Values of ω(Fe)/ω(S + As) in pyrite at different stages.
Table 4. Values of ω(Fe)/ω(S + As) in pyrite at different stages.
StageAverage
ω(Fe)/%ω(S)/%ω(As)/%ω(Fe)/ω(S + As)
I46.39752.9260.2110.878
II46.71352.6860.3970.880
III46.24752.4660.0820.881
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Zhao, F.; Li, Z.; Tian, T.; Guo, P.; Li, B.; Luo, H.; Qi, Y.; Tian, J.; Zhang, P. Mineralogy and In Situ Sulfur Isotope Geochemistry of Pyrite: Implications for Ore-Forming Processes of the Moshan Gold Deposit, Jiaodong Peninsula, North China. Minerals 2026, 16, 344. https://doi.org/10.3390/min16040344

AMA Style

Zhao F, Li Z, Tian T, Guo P, Li B, Luo H, Qi Y, Tian J, Zhang P. Mineralogy and In Situ Sulfur Isotope Geochemistry of Pyrite: Implications for Ore-Forming Processes of the Moshan Gold Deposit, Jiaodong Peninsula, North China. Minerals. 2026; 16(4):344. https://doi.org/10.3390/min16040344

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhao, Faqiang, Zhimin Li, Tongliang Tian, Peng Guo, Bin Li, Huaidong Luo, Yongliang Qi, Jiepeng Tian, and Pengpeng Zhang. 2026. "Mineralogy and In Situ Sulfur Isotope Geochemistry of Pyrite: Implications for Ore-Forming Processes of the Moshan Gold Deposit, Jiaodong Peninsula, North China" Minerals 16, no. 4: 344. https://doi.org/10.3390/min16040344

APA Style

Zhao, F., Li, Z., Tian, T., Guo, P., Li, B., Luo, H., Qi, Y., Tian, J., & Zhang, P. (2026). Mineralogy and In Situ Sulfur Isotope Geochemistry of Pyrite: Implications for Ore-Forming Processes of the Moshan Gold Deposit, Jiaodong Peninsula, North China. Minerals, 16(4), 344. https://doi.org/10.3390/min16040344

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