Sediment Influx and Its Drivers in Farmers’ Managed Irrigation Schemes in Ethiopia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Location of the Study
2.2. Field Data Collection
2.3. Soil Erosion Modeling
- A is the mean annual soil loss (t/ha/yr),
- R is the rainfall erosivity factor (MJ mm/ha h yr),
- K is the soil erodibility factor (t ha h /ha MJ mm),
- LS is the slope length and steepness factor (dimensionless),
- C is the land cover and management factor (dimensionless, ranges from zero to one),
- P is the support practices factor (dimensionless, ranges from zero to one).
2.3.1. Rainfall Erosivity
2.3.2. Soil Erodibility
- is the function of coarse sand content,
- is the function of the clay-to-silt ratio,
- is the function of the organic carbon content,
- is the function for high sand content.
- ms is the sand content (%),
- msilt is the silt content (%),
- mc is the clay content (%),
- orgC is the organic carbon content (%).
2.3.3. Slope Length and Steepness
2.3.4. Land Cover and Management
2.3.5. Support Practices
2.4. Sediment Yield
3. Results
3.1. Raster Maps of RUSLE Factors
3.2. Estimation of Soil Loss Rate
3.3. Field Measurement of Sedimentation in the Schemes
3.4. Overland Sediment Inflow Contribution
3.5. Soil Loss Severity Analysis
3.6. Uncertainity in the RUSLE Model
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
A | B | C | D | E | F | G |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Year | Farmers Involved | Working Hours | Working Days | Sediment Removed | Total Input | Out Put |
(Number) | (h/Day) | (Days) | (m3) | (Days) | (m3/Day/Farmer) | |
Arata-Chufa | ||||||
2016 | - | - | - | 194 | - | |
2017 | 260 | 4.5 | 6 | 185 | 878 | 0.21 |
2018 | 252 | 4.5 | 5 | 163 | 709 | 0.23 |
Average | 256 | 4.5 | 5.5 | 181 | 794 | 0.22 |
Ketar | ||||||
2016 | - | - | - | 2720 | - | - |
2017 | 1680 | 5 | 3 | 2690 | 3150 | 0.85 |
2018 | 1646 | 5 | 3 | 2522 | 3086 | 0.81 |
Average | 1663 | 5 | 3 | 264 | 3118 | 0.83 |
References
- Haregeweyn, N.; Balana, B.B.; Melesse, B.; Tsunekawa, A.; Tsubo, M.; Meshesha, D.; Balana, B.B. Reservoir sedimentation and its mitigating strategies: A case study of Angereb reservoir (NW Ethiopia). J. Soil Sediments 2012, 12, 291–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moridi, A.; Yazdi, J. Sediment flushing of reservoirs under environmental considerations. Water Resour. Manag. 2017, 31, 1899–1914. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kondolf, G.M.; Gao, Y.; Annandale, G.W.; Morris, G.L.; Jiang, E.; Zhang, J.; Cao, Y.; Carling, P.; Fu, K.; Guo, Q.; et al. Sustainable sediment management in reservoirs and regulated rivers: Experiences from five continents. Earth’s Future 2014, 2, 256–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aynekulu, E.; Atakliti, S.; Ejersa, A. Small-Scale Reservoir Sedimentation Rate Analysis for a Reliable Estimation of Irrigation Schemes Economic Lifetime: A Case Study of Adigudom Area Tigray, Northern Ethiopia; Faculty of Dryland Agriculture and Natural Resources, Mekelle University: Tigray, Ethiopia, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Mekonnen, M.M.; Keesstra, S.D.; Baartman, J.E.M.; Ritsema, C.J.; Melesse, A.M. Evaluating sediment storage dams: Structural off-site sediment trapping measures in Northwest Ethiopia. Cuad. Investig. Geogr. 2015, 41, 722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Moges, M.M.; Abay, D.; Engidayehu, H. Investigating reservoir sedimentation and its implications to watershed sediment yield: The case of two small dams in data-scarce upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Lakes Reserv. Res. Manag. 2018, 23, 217–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sumi, T. Reservoir sedimentation management with bypass tunnels in Japan. In Proceedings of the of the Ninth International Symposium on River Sedimentation, Yichang, China, 18–21 October 2004; pp. 1036–1043. [Google Scholar]
- Haregeweyn, N.; Poesen, J.; Nyssen, J.; De Wit, J.; Haile, M.; Govers, G.; Deckers, S. Reservoirs in Tigray (Northern Ethiopia): Characteristics and sediment deposition problems. Land Degrad Dev. 2006, 17, 211–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mekonen, A. Green Accounting Puts Price on Ethiopian Soil Erosion and Deforestation. Available online: http://efdinitiative.org/our-work/policy-interactions/green-accounting-puts-price-ethiopian-soil-erosion-and-deforestation (accessed on 21 February 2021).
- Young, A. Land Resources: Now and for the Future; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- Braimoh, A.K.; Vlek, P.L.G. Land Use and Soil Resources; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amede, T. Technical and institutional attributes constraining the performance of small-scale irrigation in Ethiopia. Water Resour. Rural Dev. 2015, 6, 78–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Awulachew, S.; Ayana, M. Performance of irrigation: An assessment at different scales in Ethiopia. Exp. Agric. 2011, 47, 57–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gurmu, Z.A.; Ritzema, H.; de Fraiture, C.; Ayana, M. Sedimentation in small-scale irrigation schemes in Ethiopia: It sources and management. J. Soil Sediments 2021. submitted for publication. [Google Scholar]
- Abera, A.; Verhoest, N.E.C.; Tilahun, S.A.; Alamirew, T.; Adgo, E.; Moges, M.M.; Nyssen, J. Performance of small-scale irrigation schemes in Lake Tana Basin of Ethiopia: Technical and socio-political attributes. Phys. Geogr. 2019, 40, 227–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gurmu, Z.A.; Ritzema, H.; de Fraiture, C.; Ayana, M. Stakeholder roles and perspectives on sedimentation management in small-scale irrigation schemes in Ethiopia. Sustainability 2019, 11, 6121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Theol, S.; Jagers, B.; Yangkhurung, J.R.; Suryadi, F.X.; de Fraiture, C. Effect of Gate Selection on the Non-Cohesive Sedimentation in Irrigation Schemes. Water 2020, 12, 2765. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ganasri, B.P.; Ramesh, H. Assessment of soil erosion by RUSLE model using remote sensing and GIS—A case study of Nethravathi Basin. Geosci. Front. 2016, 7, 953–961. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Haregeweyn, N.; Tsunekawa, A.; Poesen, J.; Tsubo, M.; Meshesha, D.T.; Fenta, A.A.; Nyssen, J.; Adgo, E. Comprehensive assessment of soil erosion risk for better land use planning in River Basins: Case study of the Upper Blue Nile River. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 574, 95–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kumar, T.; Jhariya, D.C.; Pandey, H.K. Comparative study of different models for soil erosion and sediment yield in Pairi watershed, Chhattisgarh, India. Geocarto Int. 2019, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wischmeier, W.H.; Smith, D.D. Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses: A Guide to Conservation Planning; U.S. Department of Agriculture: Bestville, MD, USA, 1978; Volume 537, p. 67. [Google Scholar]
- Hurni, H. Erosion-productivity-conservation systems in Ethiopia. In Proceedings of the IV International Conference on Soil Conservation, Maracay, Venezuela, 3–9 November 1985; pp. 654–674. [Google Scholar]
- Hurni, H. Soil Conservation Manual for Ethiopia: A Field Guide for Conservation Implementation; Ministry of Agriculture: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 1985. [Google Scholar]
- Gelagay, H.S.; Minale, A.S. Soil loss estimation using GIS and remote sensing techniques: A case of Koga watershed, Northwestern Ethiopia. Int. Soil Water Conserv. 2016, 4, 126–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Williams, J.R. Computer models of watershed hydrology. In The EPIC Model; Singh, V.P., Ed.; Water Resources Publications: Highlands Ranch, CO, USA, 1995. [Google Scholar]
- Moore, I.D.; Wilson, J.P. Length-slope factors for the revised universal soil loss equation: Simplified method of estimation. J. Soil Water Conserv. 1992, 47, 423–428. [Google Scholar]
- Schmidt, S.; Tresch, S.; Meusburger, K. Modification of the RUSLE slope length and steepness factor (LS-factor) based on rainfall experiments at steep alpine grasslands. MethodsX 2019, 6, 219–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qin, W.; Guo, Q.; Cao, W.; Yin, Z.; Yan, Q.; Shan, Z.; Zheng, F. A new RUSLE slope length factor and its application to soil erosion assessment in a Loess Plateau watershed. Soil Till Res. 2018, 182, 10–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hickey, R.; Smith, A.; Jankowski, P. Slope length calculations from a DEM within ARC/INFO grid. Comput. Environ. Urban. Syst 1994, 18, 365–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, M.; Baartman, J.E.M.; Zhang, H.; Yang, Q.; Li, S.; Yang, J.; Cai, C.; Wang, M.; Ritsema, C.J.; Geissen, V. An integrated method for calculating DEM-based RUSLE LS. Earth Sci. Inform. 2018, 11, 579–590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Desmet, P.J.J.; Govers, G. A GIS procedure for automatically calculating the USLE LS factor on topographically complex landscape units. J. Soil Water Conserv. 1996, 51, 427. [Google Scholar]
- Almagro, A.; Thomé, T.C.; Colman, C.B.; Pereira, R.B.; Marcato Junior, J.; Rodrigues, D.B.B.; Oliveira, P.T.S. Improving cover and management factor (C-factor) estimation using remote sensing approaches for tropical regions. Int. Soil Water Conserv. Res. 2019, 7, 325–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Panagos, P.; Borrelli, P.; Meusburger, K.; van der Zanden, E.H.; Poesen, J.; Alewell, C. Modelling the effect of support practices (P-factor) on the reduction of soil erosion by water at European scale. Environ. Sci. Policy 2015, 51, 23–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taye, G.; Vanmaercke, M.; Poesen, J.; Wesemael, B.V.; Tesfaye, S.; Teka, D.; Nyssen, J.; Deckers, J.; Haregeweyn, N. Determining RUSLE P- and C-factors for stone bunds and trenches in rangeland and cropland, North Ethiopia. Land Degrad Dev. 2018, 29, 812–824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nyssen, J.; Clymans, W.; Poesen, J.; Vandecasteele, I.; De Baets, S.; Haregeweyn, N.; Naudts, J.; Hadera, A.; Moeyersons, J.; Haile, M.; et al. How soil conservation affects the catchment sediment budget–A comprehensive study in the north Ethiopian highlands. Earth Surf. Proc. Landf. 2009, 34, 1216–1233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shin, G.J. The Analysis of Soil Erosion Analysis in Watershed Using GIS. Ph.D. Thesis, Gang-won National, Chuncheon, Korea, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Haregeweyn, N.; Poesen, J.; Nyssen, J.; Govers, G.; Verstraeten, G.; de Vente, J.; Deckers, J.; Moeyersons, J.; Haile, M. Sediment yield variability in Northern Ethiopia: A quantitative analysis of its controlling factors. CATENA 2008, 75, 65–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Williams, J.R.; Berndt, H.D. Sediment yield computed with universal equation. J. Hydrau. Div. 1972, 98, 2087–2098. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jain, S.K.; Singh, P.; Saraf, A.K.; Seth, S.M. Estimation of sediment yield for a rain, snow and glacier fed river in the Western Himalayan Region. Water Resour. Manag. 2003, 17, 377–393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bhattarai, R.; Dutta, D. Estimation of soil erosion and sediment yield using GIS at catchment scale. Water Resour. Manag. 2006, 21, 1635–1647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Onyando, J.O.; Kisoyan, P.; Chemelil, M.C. Estimation of potential soil erosion for river Perkerra catchment in Kenya. Water Resour. Manag. 2005, 19, 133–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, G.; Gertner, G.; Singh, V.; Shinkareva, S.; Parysow, P.; Anderson, A. Spatial and temporal prediction and uncertainty of soil loss using the revised universal soil loss equation: A case study of the rainfall-runoff erosivity R factor. Ecol. Model. 2002, 153, 143–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biesemans, J.; Van Meirvenne, M.; Gabriels, D. Extending and RUSLE with the Monte Carlo error propagation technique to predict long-term average off-site sediment accumulation. J. Soil Water Conserv. 2000, 55, 35–42. [Google Scholar]
- Falk, M.G.; Denham, R.J.; Mengersen, K.L. Estimating uncertainty in the revised universal soil loss equation via Bayesian melding. J. Agric. Biol. Environ. Stat. 2010, 15, 20–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herr, A.; Kuhnert, P.M. Assessment of uncertainty in Great Barrier Reef catchment models. Water Sci. Technol. 2007, 56, 181–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Haregeweyn, N.; Tsunekawa, A.; Nyssen, J.; Poesen, J.; Tsubo, M.; Tsegaye Meshesha, D.; Schütt, B.; Adgo, E.; Tegegne, F. Soil erosion and conservation in Ethiopia. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 2015, 39, 750–774. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Belayneh, M.; Yirgu, T.; Tsegaye, D. Potential soil erosion estimation and area prioritization for better conservation planning in Gumara watershed using RUSLE and GIS techniques’. Environ. Syst. Res. 2019, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Selassie, Y.G.; Belay, Y. Costs of nutrient losses in priceless soils eroded from the highlands of Northwestern Ethiopia. J. Agric. Sci. 2013, 5, 1916–9760. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amsalu, T.; Mengaw, A. GIS based soil soss estimation using RUSLE model: The case of Jabi Tehinan Woreda, ANRS, Ethiopia. Nat. Resour. J. 2014, 5, 616–626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yesuph, A.Y.; Dagnew, A.B. Soil erosion mapping and severity analysis based on RUSLE model and local perception in the Beshillo Catchment of the Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Environ. Syst. Res. 2019, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sonneveld, B.G.J.S.; Keyzer, M.A.; Stroosnijder, L. Evaluating quantitative and qualitative models: An application for nationwide water erosion assessment in Ethiopia. Environ. Modell. Softw. 2011, 26, 1161–1170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kebede, W.; Habitamu, T.; Efrem, G.; Fantaw, Y. Soil erosion risk assessment in the Chaleleka wetland watershed, Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Environ. Syst. Res. 2015, 4, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hui, L.; Xiaoling, C.; Lim, K.J.; Xiaobin, C.; Sagong, M. Assessment of soil erosion and sediment yield in Liao watershed, Jiangxi Province, China, using USLE, GIS, and RS. J. Earth Sci. China 2010, 21, 941–953. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mahala, A. Soil erosion estimation using RUSLE and GIS techniques—a study of a plateau fringe region of tropical environment. Arab. J. Geosci. 2018, 11, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- FAO. Ethiopian Highlands Reclamation Study; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 1984. [Google Scholar]
- Hurni, H. Ethiopian Highlands Reclamation Study, Soil Formation Rates in Ethiopia; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 1983. [Google Scholar]
- Kouli, M.; Soupios, P.; Vallianatos, F. Soil erosion prediction using the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) in a GIS framework, Chania, Northwestern Crete, Greece. Environ. Geol. 2009, 57, 483–497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Land Use/Cover | Description | Slope (%) | C | P | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cropland | Areas intensively cultivated to grain crops with contour planting and no soil and water conservation measures | 0–7 | 0.17 | 0.65 | [19,21,32,33,34,35,36] |
7–11.3 | 0.20 | 0.70 | |||
11.3–17.6 | 0.30 | 0.75 | |||
17.6–26.8 | 0.34 | 0.80 | |||
>26.8 | 0.4 | 0.90 | |||
Bare soil | Land surface without vegetation cover | 0.4 | 0.65 | ||
Closed shrub | Mixed shrub and grassland, with 50–70% of land area covered | 0.1 | 0.8 | ||
Open shrub | Mixed shrub and grassland, with fair to good cover | 0.12 | 0.75 | ||
Open grassland | Fair to good grass cover (closed grazing) | 0.15 | 0.7 | ||
Sparse forest | Open forest with grassland, with fair to good cover | 0.03 | 0.85 |
Soil Loss (A) | Sediment Yield (Y) | Measured Dredged Sediment | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Rate | Gross | Rate | Gross | Gross (2016–2018) |
(m3/ha/yr) | (m3/yr) | (m3/ha/yr) | (m3/yr) | (m3/yr) |
Arata-Chufa irrigation scheme | ||||
25.2 | 28.7 | 6.6 | 7.52 | 181 |
Ketar irrigation scheme | ||||
52.4 | 56,697 | 9.5 | 2042 | 2644 |
Per unit of Irrigable Land | Per Length of Main Canal | Per User |
---|---|---|
(m3/ha) | (m3/km) | (m3/farmer) |
Arata-Chufa irrigation scheme | ||
0.08 | 5.76 | 0.02 |
Ketar irrigation scheme | ||
4.74 | 167.05 | 1.90 |
Erosion Severity Classes | Range of Soil Loss | Area | Percentage of Total Area | Mean Annual Soil Loss | Total Annual Soil Loss | Percentage of Total Soil Loss |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(t/ha/yr) | (ha) | (%) | (t/ha/yr) | (t/ha/yr) | % | |
Arata-Chufa irrigation scheme | ||||||
Very slight | 0–5 | 0.29 | 25.44 | 3.12 | 0.90 | 8.42 |
Slight | 5–15 | 0.75 | 65.79 | 10.78 | 8.09 | 75.21 |
Moderate | 15–30 | 0.1 | 8.77 | 17.60 | 1.76 | 16.37 |
Severe | 30–50 | - | - | - | - | - |
Very severe | >50 | - | - | - | - | - |
Total | 1.14 | 10.75 | ||||
Ketar irrigation scheme | ||||||
Very slight | 0–5 | 1067.70 | 98.65 | 0.4 | 17055.00 | 70.58 |
Slight | 5–15 | 10.93 | 1.01 | 9.2 | 3931.00 | 16.27 |
Moderate | 15–30 | 3.53 | 0.33 | 21.3 | 2952.00 | 12.22 |
Severe | 30–50 | 0.15 | 0.01 | 37.8 | 227.00 | 0.94 |
Very severe | >50 | - | - | - | - | - |
Total | 1082 | 24,165 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Gurmu, Z.A.; Ritzema, H.; Fraiture, C.d.; Riksen, M.; Ayana, M. Sediment Influx and Its Drivers in Farmers’ Managed Irrigation Schemes in Ethiopia. Water 2021, 13, 1747. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13131747
Gurmu ZA, Ritzema H, Fraiture Cd, Riksen M, Ayana M. Sediment Influx and Its Drivers in Farmers’ Managed Irrigation Schemes in Ethiopia. Water. 2021; 13(13):1747. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13131747
Chicago/Turabian StyleGurmu, Zerihun Anbesa, Henk Ritzema, Charlotte de Fraiture, Michel Riksen, and Mekonen Ayana. 2021. "Sediment Influx and Its Drivers in Farmers’ Managed Irrigation Schemes in Ethiopia" Water 13, no. 13: 1747. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13131747