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Review

Characteristics, Distribution, and Sources of Atmospheric Microplastics in Southeast Asia: A Scoping Review

by
Nur Nabila Abd Rahim
1,*,
Patrick Wee Yao Peng
2,
Nurul Farehah Shahrir
1,
Wan Rozita Wan Mahiyuddin
1,
Sharifah Mazrah Sayed Mohamed Zain
1 and
Rohaida Ismail
1
1
Institute for Medical Research (IMR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Ministry of Health, Block C, No.1, Jalan Setia Murni U13/52, Seksyen U13 Setia Alam, Shah Alam 40170, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Institute for Clinical Research (ICR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Ministry of Health, Block B4, No.1, Jalan Setia Murni U13/52, Seksyen U13 Setia Alam, Shah Alam 40170, Selangor, Malaysia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Atmosphere 2025, 16(5), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16050515
Submission received: 13 February 2025 / Revised: 6 March 2025 / Accepted: 10 March 2025 / Published: 28 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Persistent Organic Pollutants and Microplastics in Air)
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Abstract

:
This scoping review examines the distribution, sources, and characterization of atmospheric microplastics (AMPs) in Southeast Asia (SEA), following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. A comprehensive search of Scopus and PubMed identified 58 relevant articles, with 16 meeting the inclusion criteria. Findings indicate high microplastic (MP) concentrations in urban centres, notably in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand, a pattern driven by rapid urbanisation, industrial emissions, textile production, and insufficient waste management. Predominant polymer types include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyester (PET), with fibres and black particles being the most common forms. Black particles, often linked to tire wear and vehicular emissions, underscore traffic pollution’s role in AMP distribution, while PET fibres reflect the influence of SEA’s textile industry. Geographic gaps were observed, with limited studies in countries such as Cambodia and Laos. The review highlights the need for standardised sampling and quantification methods to ensure data comparability and calls for expanded research into rural and coastal regions. Future studies should prioritise longitudinal investigations into the effects of chronic exposure on health; this is particularly relevant for nanoplastics (NPs) because of their greater potential for biological penetration. These insights form a crucial foundation for mitigating AMP pollution in SEA.

1. Introduction

Plastics, which are composed of high-molecular-weight polymers, have become indispensable across various industries, including packaging, construction, electronics, and medicine, due to their durability, light weight, and cost-effectiveness. As a result, global plastic production has increased significantly, reaching approximately 460 million tonnes in 2019, and projections indicate continued growth [1]. Despite advancements in recycling technologies and policies on management of plastic waste, a substantial proportion of plastic waste remains mismanaged. Recent estimates indicate that over 90% of disposable plastics are either discarded improperly, incinerated, or left uncollected, contributing to widespread environmental pollution and ecosystem degradation (Figure 1) [2].
Microplastics (MPs), defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, have emerged as a significant environmental concern due to their persistence and widespread distribution in various ecosystems [3]. While extensive research has been conducted on MP contamination in aquatic and terrestrial environments, the presence of atmospheric microplastics (AMPs) remains an emerging issue. These airborne MPs are generated from various sources, including road-traffic emissions, textile-fibre shedding, construction and demolition activities, industrial discharges, and improper plastic-waste disposal [4]. Once released, AMPs can remain suspended in the atmosphere for prolonged periods; there, they are subject to transport by wind currents, which leads to their widespread dispersal and increases the potential for human exposure [5].
The increasing presence of AMPs has raised concerns about air-quality deterioration and potential human exposure, particularly in rapidly developing regions such as Southeast Asia (SEA). Despite being one of the world’s largest producers and consumers of plastic, SEA remains underrepresented in AMP studies, with limited regional research available to assess the extent of pollution. Countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines generate substantial plastic waste, much of which is mismanaged and enters the environment [6]. The rapid expansion of urban centres and industrial hubs in the region, combined with the prevalence of open burning and unregulated landfills, has contributed significantly to AMP pollution and air-quality degradation [7].
Sources of AMP pollution in SEA vary across urban, industrial, and rural landscapes. Vehicular emissions and road-dust resuspension are among the primary contributors, with tire wear particles, road-surface degradation, and vehicular-exhaust emissions releasing airborne plastic particles [8]. Industrial emissions, particularly from the textile- and plastic-manufacturing industries, introduce large quantities of synthetic fibres and polymer-based microparticles into the atmosphere [9]. The open burning of plastic waste remains a serious issue in SEA, as open burning is frequently used for waste disposal in areas where proper landfill management is lacking. This practice is known to emit substantial quantities of AMPs, worsening air quality and increasing human exposure [7]. Additionally, construction and demolition activities generate MPs from building materials such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), and composite construction materials, which are released into the air during infrastructure development and urban expansion [10].
Despite the identification of these sources, regional-scale AMP monitoring in SEA remains limited. Current research is often restricted to localised measurements, which prevents the development of a broader understanding of AMP transport patterns, seasonal variations, and long-term deposition trends. Given SEA’s unique climatic conditions and monsoonal wind patterns, AMPs may behave differently there than they do in temperate regions, necessitating further investigation into transport dynamics and the potential for the accumulation of AMPs in remote environments.
Emerging studies indicate that inhalation of AMPs may pose health risks, as they can penetrate deep into the respiratory tract and potentially enter the bloodstream [11]. Long-term exposure to AMPs has been linked to oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and potential pulmonary toxicity, raising concerns about impacts on respiratory health. Studies focusing on occupational exposure have found high concentrations of PET and PS fibres in industrial areas, particularly within textile- and plastic-manufacturing sectors in SEA [12]. Moreover, research in Metro Manila suggests that individuals living in high-density urban environments may inhale hundreds of AMP particles per day, raising concerns about chronic exposure risks and long-term implications for respiratory health [13].
Beyond the risks associated with their direct inhalation, AMPs can act as carriers of hazardous pollutants, including heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and microbial pathogens, which potentially increase their toxicity on inhalation [14]. Their interactions with other atmospheric pollutants such as particulate matter (PM) may exacerbate respiratory diseases and contribute to long-term health burdens, particularly among vulnerable populations such as children, the elderly, and industrial workers. Despite these concerns, data on long-term AMP exposure in SEA populations remain scarce, highlighting the need for further epidemiological and toxicological research.
Although AMPs have been detected in urban environments worldwide, SEA remains underrepresented in global research efforts, with limited cross-country assessments and regional-scale investigations. Many existing studies focus on specific cities or single-source emissions, preventing the development of a comprehensive understanding of AMP transport, regional distribution, and transboundary pollution [6]. Additionally, inconsistencies in sampling techniques and data-reporting formats create challenges for cross-study comparisons.
Despite these knowledge gaps, research on AMPs in SEA remains crucial for understanding regional patterns in pollution, assessing risks of human exposure, and informing mitigation efforts. Limited data on AMP prevalence and distribution and associated health risks indicate an urgent need for a comprehensive synthesis of existing studies to inform environmental policies and future research directions.
To address these critical knowledge gaps, this scoping review systematically synthesises the existing literature on AMPs in SEA, with a focus on prevalence, sources, and characteristics. This review is guided by the following research questions:
  • What is the current state of knowledge on AMPs in SEA?
  • What are the key sources of AMPs in the region, and what is their composition?
  • What gaps exist in the current literature on AMPs in SEA, and what areas require further research?
By systematically addressing these research questions, this review aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of AMP pollution in SEA, supporting evidence-based policymaking, environmental regulations, and public-health interventions. The findings will contribute to a better understanding of AMP sources, exposure risks, and potential mitigation strategies, ensuring that future research efforts are aligned with the region’s environmental and public-health needs.

2. Materials and Methods

This scoping review investigates the distribution of AMPs in SEA. We adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) to ensure rigour and transparency [15]. No review protocol was developed for this scoping review.

2.1. Eligibility Criteria

The inclusion criteria for this scoping review required studies to focus on AMPs within SEA countries. Eligible studies included original research, reviews, case studies, and reports published in peer-reviewed journals or other reputable sources. Only studies available in English or with an English translation were included. Non-original articles, such as conference proceedings, perspectives, commentary, opinion pieces, and systematic reviews or meta-analyses, were excluded. Additionally, studies were excluded if they focused on regions outside SEA, did not specifically address AMPs, or were published in non-peer-reviewed or non-credible sources.

2.2. Search Strategy

The search strategy involved an initial, independent search by two reviewers of the Scopus and PubMed databases from the inception of each database until 2 September 2024. The search included terms related to microplastics, nanoplastics, airborne particles, and Southeast Asia, as outlined in Appendix A, Table A1. All retrieved article references were imported into Endnote 21 for duplicate removal and to assist in the selection of potentially relevant papers [16]. Manual deduplication was further ensured by importing the references into Microsoft Excel for verification. Two reviewers independently screened the titles and abstracts based on predefined criteria to identify studies that met the selection criteria. Full-text analysis was then conducted to extract data, with any disagreements in paper selection or data extraction resolved through group discussion, and reasons for exclusion were documented.

2.3. Data Charting and Synthesis of Results

A standardised data-charting process was employed to systematically extract relevant information from the included studies, ensuring consistency, transparency, and comparability across diverse methodologies and reporting formats. The extracted variables included study characteristics (author, year of publication, and country), methodological details (study design, sample type, collection method, sampling technique—passive or active, and sampling duration), and AMP characteristics (concentration levels, particle count, shape, size, colour, and polymer type).
To ensure accuracy and reliability, two independent reviewers conducted data extraction using a predefined data-charting form. Any discrepancies were discussed to reach a consensus, and in cases where agreement could not be achieved, a third reviewer made the final decision. Extracted data were then compiled into structured summary tables for clear and consistent presentation.
The synthesis of results followed a narrative approach, which was supported by descriptive tables summarising key findings. Studies were categorised based on geographical location, study design, sample type, and collection method. Additionally, reported AMP concentrations and dominant polymer types, particle sizes, and shapes were synthesised to provide an overview of trends across studies. A summary of these findings is presented in Table 1.

3. Results

A total of 58 articles were identified through the initial database searches. After duplicate removal, 43 unique records remained. After title and abstract screening, 21 studies were excluded for not meeting the inclusion criteria. Full-text screening was conducted on 22 articles, 6 of which were excluded due to focusing on non-SEA regions or not addressing AMPs. In the end, 16 studies were included in the review. A flow diagram illustrating this process is presented in Figure 2.

3.1. Overview of Included Studies

The study reviewed 16 papers on research conducted across five Southeast Asian countries, including five from Malaysia, five from Indonesia, four from Thailand, one from Vietnam, and one from the Philippines (Figure 3). Notably, no studies were identified from Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Brunei, or Singapore, highlighting potential geographic gaps in the current research landscape. Among these, only two studies focused on indoor atmospheric microplastics (AMPs), while the remainder examined outdoor AMPs.
The publications spanned from 2020 to the third quarter of 2024, with a marked increase in the number of studies in recent years (Figure 4). The highest volume was from 2023, with seven out of the sixteen papers published in that year alone. This trend suggests a growing interest in the field of AMPs in SEA, likely driven by increased global awareness of plastic pollution and environmental sustainability.

3.2. Sampling Methods and Data Collection Techniques

The reviewed studies employed a variety of sampling methods, tailored to their specific research environments and objectives. Deposited atmospheric samples, particularly from settled dust, rainfall, and dry deposition, were commonly examined to gauge the concentration and types of AMPs [31,32,33]. Currently, there is no standardised method for the collection of AMPs. Sampling techniques generally fall into two categories: passive and active, with each method offering distinct advantages and limitations [34]. Passive sampling is often simpler and less resource-intensive, making it suitable for long-term monitoring in remote locations. Additionally, it also enables continuous collection over extended periods, allowing for observation of changes in microplastic-deposition rates over time, particularly in different weather conditions. In contrast, active sampling typically allows for more precise control of atmospheric sample collection, although it typically requires specialised equipment and power sources.
Hee et al. utilised passive samplers to capture deposited MPs, noting the highest deposition during the Northeast monsoon, which suggests that wind speed significantly contributes to the long-range transport of MPs in Malaysia [24]. Meanwhile, Hashim et al. employed dust-deposition gauges in both urban and rural environments in Malaysia and observed higher MP concentrations in rural Timah Tasoh than in urban Kuala Lumpur, a result indicating that open spaces and wind patterns play a key role in MP dispersion [22]. Using dust-deposition gauges for passive sampling of AMPs is advantageous due to their efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and ability to capture a comprehensive picture of AMP deposition over time.
Other studies, like that by Purwiyanto et al., extended their scope by collecting samples of deposited MPs from rainfall using rain gauges placed on rooftops [19]. This approach enabled the researchers to monitor MP deposition over extended periods, providing insights into how precipitation contributes to the distribution of these particles in the environment. Winijkul et al., in Thailand, used an automated precipitation sampler, showing that wet deposition was characterised by a higher flux of MPs than was dry deposition, with fibres being the dominant form of MPs [30].
Suspended atmospheric samples were commonly collected using high-volume air samplers. For instance, both Syafina et al. and Azmi et al. employed this method in urban settings (Bandung, Indonesia and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia respectively), capturing MPs through fibreglass filters [20,21]. High-volume samplers are particularly useful in detecting finer MPs in the atmosphere, offering insights into how these particles remain suspended and can be inhaled by humans, particularly in highly urbanised areas. Romarate II et al. employed respirable dust samplers in Metro Manila, further illustrating the variation in AMP concentrations across different urban locations [13]. Jannah et al. also collected suspended samples using high-volume samplers across multiple sites in Indonesia, finding that black fragmented MPs dominated, with vehicle activity as the likely source [28]. By deploying high-volume samplers at multiple sites, researchers can assess spatial variations in AMP deposition. This is important for identifying hotspots of pollution and understanding how urbanisation, industrial activity, and environmental factors influence MP distribution.
For indoor air sampling, Bahrina et al. analysed settled dust samples collected using vacuum cleaners in indoor environments, including offices and homes, highlighting that human activity significantly influences indoor MP levels [17].
Additionally, Limsiriwong et al. used personal air samplers to assess AMP exposure in the breathing zone of university waste workers in Thailand [12]. The study reported high exposure rates, linking MP levels to plastic-handling activities. Personal air samplers are designed to be worn or carried by individuals, allowing for the collection of air samples in the “breathing zone”. This setup accurately reflects the actual exposure levels experienced by individuals in specific occupational settings, providing a more realistic assessment than stationary sampling methods do [35].

3.3. Characteristics of Atmospheric Microplastics

3.3.1. Concentrations of Atmospheric Microplastics

The concentrations of AMPs varied widely across the reviewed studies, reflecting differences in both environmental conditions and sampling methodologies. For instance, Yukioka et al. reported a concentration of 19.7 ± 13.7 particles/m2 from surface road dust in urban Vietnam (Da Nang) [18]. In contrast, Purwiyanto et al. observed an average deposition rate of 15 particles/m2/day in Jakarta, Indonesia, with a range of 3 to 40 particles and rates depending largely on rainfall patterns and other environmental factors [19].
One of the highest concentrations was found in urban Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur), where Azmi et al. reported suspended MP values ranging from 16.39 to 96.81 µg/m3/day [21].

3.3.2. Physical Characteristics: Shape, Size, and Colour

Fibres consistently emerged as the dominant form of AMPs across most studies. For instance, Bahrina et al. reported that 85% of the detected particles in Indonesia were fibres, a finding echoed by Syafina et al., who observed the prevalence of fibres in both urban and suburban samples in Indonesia [17,20]. Purwiyanto et al. also noted that 86.4% of particles in rainfall deposition samples were fibres, further illustrating the widespread presence of fibres in atmospheric environments [19].
A variety of AMP-particle sizes were found in different geographical locations. Romarate II et al. reported that the size of particles in Metro Manila ranged from 159 to 4807 µm, while Jannah et al. found AMPs in Yogyakarta, Indonesia that ranged from small fragments of <100 µm to larger particles [13,28]. Azmi et al. observed that larger MPs were found at higher elevations, indicating a possible height-dependent distribution of particle sizes in urban settings [21].
Regarding colour, Syafina et al. reported that 77.2% of particles in urban Indonesia were black, with suburban areas showing an even higher percentage of 81.8% [20]. Myat et al. in Thailand, also found that black fragments, likely from tire wear, dominated the AMP profiles in both roadside and residential areas, further supporting the link between traffic-related activities and AMP pollution [29].

3.3.3. Chemical Composition: Polymer Types

The polymer composition of AMPs varied across study locations and the methods used for analysis. Commonly identified polymers included PE, PP, and PET, which are widely used in consumer products and contribute to environmental pollution. Yukioka et al., for instance, found that PE was the most abundant polymer in surface dust samples from Vietnam, alongside other polymers such as PP and PS [18]. Romarate II et al. conducted a study in the Philippines and discovered that PET made up 73.53% of MPs in Metro Manila, with other polymers such as PA and PP also detected [13].
Similarly, Purwiyanto et al. found that PET was the dominant polymer in rainfall samples in Indonesia, accounting for 81.82% of particles, reinforcing the role of textile industries in contributing to AMPs [19]. The study by Chenappan et al. found significant levels of AMPs in Terengganu, Malaysia, with those particles mostly composed of PES, PE, and PP, along with heavy metals, indicating additional health risks associated with these airborne particles [26].

3.4. Geographic Variations

Geographic differences in AMP concentrations were evident across the studies, with urban environments generally exhibiting higher levels of pollution compared to suburban or rural areas. Yukioka et al. reported that Da Nang, an urban centre in Vietnam, had a higher concentration of AMPs compared to other areas, a difference attributed to the city's heavy traffic and industrial activities [18]. Hashim et al., however, found that rural Timah Tasoh had more MPs than urban Kuala Lumpur, highlighting the role of open spaces and wind patterns in MP dispersion [22].
Sarathana et al., in Bangkok Metropolitan Region, Thailand, reported that dumpsites and roadsides had the highest AMP concentrations, with a dominance of fragments, further illustrating the significant contribution of industrial and vehicular activities to AMP pollution in urban environments [25]. Hee et al. showed that long-range transport of AMPs can affect deposition rates in more remote or rural areas, especially during periods of high wind speed during the monsoon season [24].

4. Discussion

4.1. Synthesis of Findings

This scoping review identifies a diverse range of findings related to AMPs in SEA, highlighting substantial variability in their concentrations, as well as physical and chemical composition. Urban centres, characterised by dense populations, industrial activities, and high vehicular emissions, consistently report elevated concentrations of AMPs [36]. These findings underscore the critical influence of anthropogenic activities, particularly in rapidly urbanising regions.

4.1.1. Characteristics of AMP

The predominance of fibres, predominantly from synthetic textiles, points to the significant contribution of textile-related pollution, aligning with global studies that also highlight synthetic fibres as a major source of AMPs [37].
The variation in reported concentrations across studies can largely be attributed to differing methodologies, such as sampling techniques and temporal coverage. High-volume air samplers often report higher concentrations of AMPs due to their ability to draw a large volume of air through a filter at high flow rates, capturing smaller particles efficiently, while passive sampling methods (e.g., dust collection) rely on natural deposition of particles onto a surface over time and tend to capture larger, settled particles, leading to lower concentration estimates [38]. This variation highlights the need for standardised protocols to enable reliable cross-study comparisons of AMP concentrations.

4.1.2. Geographical Variation

Further, geographic and temporal differences also influence the variability in AMP concentrations. Fluctuations in AMP levels can be attributed to seasonal changes, local weather patterns, or episodic pollution events [39]. For example, a study conducted in Taipei City, Taiwan, found that AMP abundance varied seasonally, with higher levels during the warm season compared to the cold [40].
Urban environments, which are characterised by industrial activities, traffic emissions, and poor waste management, consistently show higher MP concentrations. Geographically, the review reveals that urban areas exhibit much higher AMP concentrations compared to suburban and rural regions, emphasising the influence of localised factors such as urbanisation patterns, population density, and specific industrial activities [41]. For instance, high concentrations of AMPs in urban Malaysia, particularly in Kuala Lumpur, can be linked to extensive vehicular traffic, construction activities, and industrial emissions. This pattern is not unique to SEA; similar studies in Europe and South America have demonstrated that urban settings typically have higher MP loads [42,43].

4.1.3. Sources of AMP

The chemical composition of AMPs in SEA is dominated by polymers such as PE, PP, PS, and PET. These materials are extensively utilised in packaging, construction, and the textile industry, which explains their widespread presence in atmospheric samples. Notably, PET fibres are frequently detected, indicating that textile production, particularly in countries with robust manufacturing sectors, plays a significant role in AMP pollution. For instance, studies have shown that textiles are a major contributor to indoor and outdoor dust in urban environments, where PET fibres are abundant [44]. In Shanghai, for example, AMP comprised primarily of PET, PE, and other synthetic compounds, reflecting the city's high industrial activity [45]. Similarly, in Dongguan city, fibres of PE, PP, and PS were the predominant AMPs identified in atmospheric samples, illustrating the link between urbanisation, industrialisation, and the prevalence of AMP pollution. However, the overall higher concentrations observed in SEA cities compared to some Western counterparts likely result from SEA’s rapid industrialisation, inadequate waste-management infrastructure, and practices such as open burning, which exacerbate MP emissions [46,47,48]. The region’s climate, characterised by high humidity, rainfall, and monsoon winds, also facilitates the re-suspension and wider dispersion of MPs [49].
The colour and physical characteristics of AMPs provide important clues about their sources, particularly in urban areas with heavy traffic. Black particles are predominantly linked to tire wear and emissions from vehicle exhaust [50]. These tire-derived particles are commonly found in urban environments, where traffic congestion and road wear contribute to their high concentration in the atmosphere [51,52,53,54].
Although these trends are consistent with global findings, the higher concentrations of AMPs in SEA underscore the region’s unique context. Economic dependence on industries such as manufacturing, construction, and textiles, combined with less stringent regulatory frameworks, exacerbates the issue [55,56]. Geographic variability in AMP concentrations—particularly between urban and rural areas—further emphasises the need for localised studies to understand how specific industries and environmental factors contribute to AMP pollution in different settings.
Without improved waste-management systems and stricter environmental regulations, SEA is likely to continue facing elevated levels of AMP pollution, particularly in rapidly urbanising centres. Additionally, the region’s climate—characterised by monsoon seasons and high humidity—may further influence the dispersion and long-term deposition patterns of AMPs, exacerbating their environmental and health impacts [57].

4.2. Health Impacts of AMPs

Although the presence of MPs in the atmosphere is well documented, understanding of their health impacts, particularly in SEA’s rapidly urbanizing regions, remains limited. AMPs, especially smaller particles (<10 µm) and nanoplastics (NPs), pose potential health risks due to their ability to be inhaled, deposited in the respiratory system, and translocated to other organs.
Once inhaled, AMPs may cause respiratory irritation, inflammation, and long-term pulmonary damage. PS, a commonly detected polymer in SEA, is particularly concerning due to its known toxicity. Long-term exposure to PS, whether through inhalation or ingestion, has been associated with adverse respiratory and cardiovascular effects [58,59,60]. These toxicological risks align with global evidence on polymer-associated toxicity [61].
AMPs can also interact with other airborne pollutants such as PM, heavy metals, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), further exacerbating their toxic effects. Acting as vectors for harmful chemicals, POPs, or microbial pathogens, AMPs may facilitate deeper penetration into the lungs or bloodstream, potentially increasing overall toxicity and systemic inflammation. This is particularly concerning in highly polluted urban centres such as those in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand, where co-exposure to AMPs and other airborne contaminants may amplify health risks.
Beyond respiratory health, long-term exposure to AMPs raises concerns about systemic effects, particularly on the cardiovascular and nervous systems. Inhaled polymeric particles, including PS and PET fibres—commonly linked to SEA’s textile industry—have been implicated in oxidative stress and chronic inflammation [11]. These processes are known precursors to serious health conditions, including cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and, potentially, carcinogenesis.
While direct human-exposure studies on AMPs remain scarce in SEA, some research has identified populations at higher risk. Occupational groups such as waste handlers, textile-industry workers, and construction workers are disproportionately exposed due to prolonged interactions with AMP-laden environments [12]. Additionally, urban populations residing near industrial zones and high-traffic roads are exposed to elevated AMP concentrations, as reported by Myat et al. in Southern Thailand and Jannah et al. in Indonesia [28,29].
A study by Romarate II et al. in Metro Manila estimated that individuals in high-density urban areas may inhale several hundred AMP particles per day, raising concerns about chronic respiratory exposure and potential accumulation in the lungs [13]. Similar findings by Hidayat et al. identified fine AMPs (<10 µm) in high-pollution areas, suggesting the possibility of deep lung penetration and long-term retention in lung tissue [27].
Despite these findings, the long-term health effects of inhaling AMPs remain understudied in SEA. Future research should prioritise epidemiological studies, biomonitoring efforts, and exposure modelling to assess the potential health risks of AMP inhalation, particularly among vulnerable populations such as children, the elderly, and industrial workers. Additionally, integrating air-quality monitoring with health surveillance will be essential to establish exposure thresholds and inform public-health policies in the region.

4.3. Strengths and Limitations

This scoping review has several strengths that contribute to the field of AMP research. A key strength is its focus on SEA, a region that has been underrepresented in global AMP studies. By compiling studies from a range of SEA countries, this review offers a comprehensive overview of AMP research in the region. Importantly, it highlights the need for further research in less-studied countries, such as Cambodia, Laos, Singapore, Brunei, and Myanmar, where data on AMP concentrations and sources remain scarce.
Another strength of the review is its comprehensive inclusion of studies across both urban and suburban environments, providing valuable insights into how AMP pollution differs across various geographic settings. The review also captures a diverse range of sampling methods, including studies on suspended and deposited MPs, offering a more holistic picture of MP distribution in the atmosphere. This diversity of study settings and methodologies enhances the relevance of the findings for policymakers and public-health stakeholders seeking to address AMP pollution in different contexts.
However, this review also has limitations. One limitation is the heterogeneity of methodologies used in the included studies, which complicates direct comparisons. Variations in sampling techniques, concentration metrics, and polymer-identification methods make it difficult to standardise results across studies. For instance, some studies measured AMP concentrations in particles/m2, while others used mass-based measurements (e.g., µg/m3/day). This lack of standardisation is a persistent challenge in MP research and underscores the need for more uniform protocols in future studies.
Additionally, the exclusion of non-English-language studies may have led to the omission of important research, particularly from countries where English is not the primary language of scientific publication. This may have restricted the geographical representation of the review, especially in less-developed SEA countries.

4.4. Gaps in the Current Literature and Future Research Directions

This scoping review identifies several key areas where future research on AMPs in SEA is essential. The region’s dense population, unique industrial landscape, and diverse environmental conditions create distinct challenges in addressing the prevalence, composition, and impacts of AMP. Therefore, more targeted research is needed to fill current knowledge gaps and to guide effective public-health interventions.

4.4.1. Geographic Gaps

One major gap identified in the literature is the geographic underrepresentation of several Southeast Asian countries, particularly Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Brunei, and Singapore, as well as rural and coastal areas. Most research has focused on urban centres, leaving large portions of the region unstudied. Expanding research to these underrepresented regions is crucial for gaining a more comprehensive understanding of AMP distribution. Rural and coastal environments may have different sources of AMPs and varying levels of exposure compared to urban centres, which could influence pollution patterns. Further studies in these areas will help determine whether AMPs are primarily concentrated in urban areas or if they also affect less-populated regions through atmospheric transport. Understanding the geographic spread of AMP pollution is essential for developing effective, region-wide policies that address the full scope of the issue.

4.4.2. Variability in Methodologies

One of the major challenges in AMP research is the lack of standardised methodologies, which leads to inconsistencies across studies. Variability in sampling techniques, analytical procedures, and data reporting formats hinders comparability, making it difficult to establish regional or global trends in AMP pollution. The absence of harmonised protocols has led to studies using different metrics, which prevents effective cross-study synthesis and limits their applicability in policymaking.
A key source of variability lies in sampling methods. Passive sampling techniques, such as dust-deposition collectors, rely on natural particle settling and provide insights into long-term atmospheric deposition. In contrast, active sampling methods, such as high-volume air samplers, capture real-time airborne concentrations and often report higher AMP levels due to their efficiency in collecting finer particles. These methodological differences affect concentration estimates, making direct comparisons between studies difficult.
Another critical inconsistency is data-reporting formats. Some studies quantify AMPs in particles per square meter (particles/m2), a metric commonly used in depositional sampling, whereas others use micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m3) or particles per cubic meter (particles/m3), which are standard in air-quality assessments. The use of multiple units complicates cross-study analyses, often requiring conversions that introduce additional uncertainty and limit the ability to conduct regional assessments.
To improve comparability, harmonisation of methodologies is essential. Standardised protocols should integrate both passive and active sampling to ensure comprehensive assessments. Additionally, a dual-reporting system, where both mass-based (µg/m3) and particle-based (particles/m3) concentrations are reported, would facilitate meaningful comparisons. Establishing consistent study designs, including uniform collection durations and laboratory processing methods, will further enhance data reliability and support the development of robust AMP-monitoring frameworks.

4.4.3. Variability in Study Scales and Time Intervals

One of the significant challenges in synthesizing AMP research in SEA is the variability in study scales and timeframes, which limits direct comparisons and the ability to establish regional trends. The number and geographical distribution of sampling sites and monitoring durations vary significantly across studies.
For instance, Romarate II et al. conducted sampling across 16 cities and one municipality in Metro Manila, Philippines, offering a broad regional perspective [13]. In contrast, Limsiriwong et al. focused on occupational exposure in specific work settings [12], limiting generalizability to the broader population. Similarly, Sarathana et al. investigated AMP levels in a coastal environment, where both marine and atmospheric sources contributed to AMP deposition, highlighting location-specific influences [25].
Variations in monitoring duration also affect comparability. Winijkul et al. conducted long-term monitoring over 18 weeks, allowing for seasonal comparisons, while Jannah et al. and Hidayat et al. collected samples over short periods (days to weeks), limiting insight into temporal trends [27,28,30].
These inconsistencies pose challenges in drawing regional-scale conclusions on AMP pollution trends and seasonal variations. To address this, future research should adopt multi-site, multi-season studies with harmonised sampling protocols. Establishing a minimum recommended monitoring period (e.g., three months, covering both wet and dry seasons) would improve comparability across studies and contribute to the development of regional models of AMP pollution.

4.4.4. Health Impacts and Long-Term Exposure

While some studies have highlighted the short-term health effects of AMPs, the long-term impacts, especially for vulnerable populations such as children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions, remain poorly understood. There is an urgent need for longitudinal studies to assess the cumulative health risks associated with chronic AMP exposure, particularly in densely populated urban areas where exposure levels are highest. These studies should focus on vulnerable groups to provide critical insights into the full spectrum of health risks, including respiratory and cardiovascular risks and other systemic effects. Furthermore, the growing concern over NPs—smaller particles with greater potential for biological penetration—necessitates more research into their unique health risks. Understanding both the long-term exposure to AMPs and the specific risks posed by NPs is essential for developing public-health policies and interventions aimed at protecting high-risk populations from the harmful effects of prolonged exposure.

4.4.5. Source Attribution and Transport Pathways

Understanding the sources and transport pathways of AMPs remains a critical research gap. While tire wear and textile fibres have been identified as major contributors, there is limited research on the mechanisms governing their emission, transport, and deposition across diverse environments. Future studies should aim to characterise key AMP sources, including industrial activities, vehicular emissions, and textile production, to improve estimates of AMP emissions. Investigating the movement of AMPs, particularly their transport from urban centres to rural and coastal regions, is essential to understanding their distribution, persistence, and accumulation across ecosystems. A deeper understanding of these transport mechanisms will enable the development of targeted mitigation strategies, supporting policymakers and environmental agencies in reducing AMP emissions and minimizing their atmospheric impact.
The behaviour of airborne AMPs is strongly influenced by particle size, aerodynamic properties, and environmental factors. Smaller AMPs, particularly those below 10 µm, exhibit prolonged atmospheric suspension, behaving similarly to fine PM [26]. Wind speed, turbulence, and humidity play key roles in AMP resuspension, transport, and deposition [62]. Winijkul et al. highlighted that wet deposition serves as a major mechanism of AMP removal from the atmosphere, whereas dry conditions contribute to prolonged suspension and long-range atmospheric transport [30].
In high-traffic urban environments, Jannah et al. identified black fragmented AMPs likely originating from tire wear and road-paint degradation in road dust, underscoring the significance of resuspension mechanisms in AMP distribution [28]. Conversely, coastal regions exhibit distinct AMP transport patterns due to marine-atmospheric interactions. Sarathana et al. observed that AMPs in a coastal setting were deposited from both atmospheric and marine sources, suggesting bidirectional plastic movement between the ocean and the air [25]. These findings indicate that AMPs can travel long distances via atmospheric and oceanic currents, contributing to regional and transboundary microplastic pollution.
To better understand the dynamics of AMP transport, future research should integrate real-time atmospheric monitoring with deposition models to accurately assess AMP dispersion and accumulation. Additionally, longitudinal studies conducted under varying meteorological conditions are needed to evaluate how seasonal factors influence AMP resuspension and deposition rates, which will be crucial for informing environmental policies and strategies for air-quality management.

4.4.6. Indoor Air Quality and AMP

An additional area that requires attention is indoor AMPs. Given that people spend a substantial amount of time indoors, it is critical to understand the levels of AMPs in indoor environments such as homes, offices, institutions, and schools. These environments may have higher concentrations of AMPs due to the presence of synthetic textiles, household dust, and other sources. Investigating indoor AMP levels and their associated health risks will be important for developing public-health policies that address both outdoor and indoor exposure.
This review contributes to establishing a regional baseline for AMP concentrations in SEA, a crucial step given the current fragmentation in data arising from the use of diverse methodologies. By synthesising findings from multiple countries, the review underscores the need for standardised sampling and quantification methods to enable meaningful regional and global comparisons in the future. Establishing such baselines is essential for tracking changes in AMP pollution over time, particularly in rapidly urbanising areas where the risks of exposure are highest.
The findings also highlight the need for research that extends beyond urban centres. Rural and coastal regions remain underexplored, and their inclusion in future studies would provide a more complete understanding of AMP distribution. Expanding research to include NPs, which have a higher potential for biological penetration, will further refine our understanding of the health risks posed by atmospheric plastic pollution in SEA.

4.5. Policy Recommendations

The growing concern over AMPs in SEA underscores the urgent need for policy interventions. While most existing regulations focus on marine and terrestrial plastic pollution, atmospheric pathways remain largely unaddressed. Drawing from established environmental policies and best practices, this section outlines key strategies to mitigate AMP pollution through standardised monitoring, emission control, improved waste management, and public-health initiatives.
One critical step is the implementation of standardised monitoring frameworks. Many countries have well-established systems for monitoring air quality, such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Air Quality Index (AQI) and the European Air Quality Directive, which regulate PM pollution [63,64]. Integrating AMP assessment into these existing monitoring networks would enable consistent data collection and facilitate direct comparisons with conventional air pollutants. Additionally, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Global Partnership on Marine Litter (GPML) have emphasised the importance of harmonised methodologies for microplastic research [65]. Adapting international guidelines on microplastic sampling, such as ISO 24187:2023, which outlines standardised methods for detecting and quantifying microplastics in environmental samples, could help to establish a unified AMP-monitoring framework across SEA [66].
In addition to monitoring, emission-reduction strategies should be implemented to curb AMP release from key industrial sources. Countries such as the Netherlands have successfully introduced emission-control technologies in sectors known for generating airborne pollutants, including textile and tire manufacturing [67]. Regulatory bodies in SEA could follow similar models by mandating advanced filtration systems in industrial facilities and promoting sustainable material alternatives. The European Union’s Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals (REACH) regulation, which addresses hazardous substances in industrial processes, serves as an example of how stricter industry standards can reduce environmental contamination [68].
Given that mismanagement of plastic waste is a major contributor to AMP emissions, enhancing waste-management policies is essential. Countries with advanced waste-management systems, such as Japan and South Korea, have achieved high rates of plastic recycling through strict regulations on waste segregation, bans on open burning, and circular-economy initiatives [69,70]. SEA policymakers should consider adopting similar approaches, including Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) schemes and stricter landfill-management regulations, to minimise AMP emissions from mismanaged plastic waste [71,72].
Beyond environmental policies, public-health considerations must be integrated into strategies for AMP mitigation. Given the limited epidemiological data on AMP exposure, governments should prioritise long-term biomonitoring studies to assess health risks, particularly among high-risk populations such as industrial workers and urban residents [73,74]. Existing policies related to occupational health, such as those outlined by the International Labour Organization (ILO), provide frameworks for protecting workers exposed to hazardous airborne particles [75]. Incorporating AMP-exposure assessments into workplace-safety guidelines, particularly in industries with high use of synthetic fibres, would help mitigate health risks.
Finally, regional and international collaboration is crucial for tackling AMP pollution. Multilateral agreements such as the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution and the Basel Convention on Plastic Waste offer potential pathways for integrating AMP-related concerns into broader environmental governance [76,77]. Collaborative efforts between SEA nations, supported by international agencies such as UNEP and the World Health Organization (WHO), could drive the development of regional monitoring, regulation, and mitigation strategies for AMPs.
By aligning policy recommendations with existing successful programs, SEA can leverage well-established frameworks to address AMP pollution effectively. Future regulatory efforts should integrate global best practices to ensure a science-based, coordinated response to atmospheric plastic pollution.

5. Conclusions

This scoping review explored the prevalence, sources, and characteristics of AMPs in SEA and identified key research gaps. AMPs are most prevalent in urban centres, a pattern driven by industrial activities and vehicular emissions, with concentrations significantly lower in rural and coastal areas. The main sources of AMPs are tire wear, textile production, and vehicular emissions, with synthetic fibres and tire-derived particles being the most common types. These findings highlight the influence of urbanisation and industrialisation on AMP pollution in the region.
However, several research gaps remain. Key underrepresented regions, particularly rural and coastal areas, require further study to understand AMP distribution more comprehensively. Additionally, inconsistencies in sampling durations and monitoring periods hinder researchers in their ability to assess seasonal and long-term trends, limiting our understanding of AMP variability across different climatic conditions. The lack of standardised sampling and analysis methods across studies further complicates cross-comparison, restricting the development of regional and global baselines. More research is also needed on the long-term health impacts of AMPs, particularly for vulnerable populations, and on the risks posed by NPs, which are smaller and more likely to penetrate biological systems.
Moving forward, the most urgent priority is the development of standardised frameworks for AMP monitoring to ensure consistency in sampling methodologies and data reporting. Establishing harmonised protocols will enhance comparability across studies, enabling more accurate trend analyses and supporting effective policy interventions. In parallel, expanding long-term exposure assessments is critical to understanding the potential health risks, particularly for vulnerable populations such as industrial workers and urban residents in high-pollution areas.
Finally, the challenges of spatial and temporal representativeness in AMP research are not unique to SEA, but are prevalent globally. Many regions worldwide face similar gaps in monitoring coverage, limiting our ability to assess the full extent of AMP pollution. Future research should not only focus on filling regional gaps but also contribute to international efforts in developing globally comparable datasets. By addressing these issues through expanded monitoring networks, multi-seasonal assessments, and harmonised methodologies, AMP research can provide a stronger scientific foundation for mitigating pollution at both regional and global scales.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.N.A.R., N.F.S. and R.I.; methodology, N.N.A.R. and P.W.Y.P.; formal analysis, N.N.A.R. and P.W.Y.P.; writing—original draft, N.N.A.R. and P.W.Y.P.; visualization, N.N.A.R.; writing—review & editing, N.F.S., W.R.W.M., S.M.S.M.Z. and R.I.; supervision, N.F.S., W.R.W.M. and R.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This research received approval from the Medical Research and Ethics Committee of the Malaysia Ministry of Health (NMRR ID-24-02135-PFI (IIR)).

Acknowledgments

The authors express gratitude to the Director General of Health Malaysia for granting the permission to publish this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
AMPAtmospheric microplastics

Appendix A

Table A1. Detailed search strategies for (a) Pubmed and (b) Scopus.
Table A1. Detailed search strategies for (a) Pubmed and (b) Scopus.
DatabaseSearch Strategy
(a)Pubmed((microplastic*[Title/Abstract]) OR (nanoplastic*[Title/Abstract])) AND ((airborne[Title/Abstract]) OR (atmospher*[Title/Abstract]) OR (aerial[Title/Abstract]) OR (air[Title/Abstract] AND pollut*[Title/Abstract])) AND ((Southeast Asia[MeSH Terms]) OR (Malaysia[Title/Abstract]) OR (Singapore[Title/Abstract]) OR (Thailand[Title/Abstract]) OR (Indonesia[Title/Abstract]) OR (Philippines[Title/Abstract]) OR (Vietnam[Title/Abstract]) OR (Brunei[Title/Abstract]) OR (Cambodia[Title/Abstract]) OR (Laos[Title/Abstract]) OR (Myanmar[Title/Abstract]) OR (“Southeast Asia”[Title/Abstract]))
(b)Scopus(TITLE-ABS-KEY(microplastic* OR nanoplastic*)) AND (TITLE-ABS-KEY(airborne OR atmospher* OR aerial OR “air pollution”)) AND (TITLE-ABS-KEY(“Southeast Asia” OR Malaysia OR Singapore OR Thailand OR Indonesia OR Philippines OR Vietnam OR Brunei OR Cambodia OR Laos OR Myanmar))

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Figure 1. Distribution of waste-management activities (million tons) [1].
Figure 1. Distribution of waste-management activities (million tons) [1].
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Figure 2. The PRISMA flow diagram.
Figure 2. The PRISMA flow diagram.
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Figure 3. Number of articles by country.
Figure 3. Number of articles by country.
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Figure 4. Distribution of studies by year and country.
Figure 4. Distribution of studies by year and country.
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Table 1. Summary of reviewed studies.
Table 1. Summary of reviewed studies.
Author, Country (Year)Study SettingSample TypeCollection MethodConcentrationNumber of ParticlesShapeSizeColourPolymer TypeMain Findings
Bahrina et al., Indonesia (2020) [17]IndoorDeposited—settled dustVacuum cleanersNot specifiedOffices: 334–351 (weekday), 242–252 (weekend); Schools: 290–321 (weekday), 239–257 (weekend); Apartments: 108–133 (weekday), 95–127 (weekend)Fibres (85%), fragments, films3000–3500 µm (dominant)Not specifiedNot specifiedOffices showed the highest MP counts, especially on workdays; apartments had the lowest. Occupant numbers influenced levels.
Yukioka et al., Vietnam (2020) [18] UrbanDeposited—surface road dustVacuum cleaner with disposal bags19.7 ± 13.7 pieces/m2167 Fragments (73%), sheets/films, lines/fibres, granulesAverage: 791 ± 530 µm; Median: 605 µmBlack (21%), Gray (4%), White/Transparent (5%), Yellow (13%), Brown (1%), Red (8%), Blue (21%), Green (26%)PE, PP, PS, PET, PAK, PVS, EPC, SBR, EPDM, PUDa Nang had higher MP concentrations than Kusatsu and Kathmandu. Urban activities and waste management impacted levels and types.
Purwiyanto et al., Indonesia (2022) [19] UrbanDeposited—rainfall & dry depositionRain gauge on rooftopAverage 15 particles/m2/day (range 3–40)Total of 175 particles over the period (how long?)Fibres (86.4%), fragments (10.6%), foams (3.0%)300–500 µm (88%); range: 358–925 µmNot specifiedPET (81.82%), PB (7.58%), PE (7.58%), PS (3.03%)Higher MP deposition in Jakarta during rainy season; fibres predominant; PET most common. Positive correlation between rainfall and deposition.
Syafina et al., Indonesia (2022) [20]Urban and suburbanSuspended samplesHigh-volume sampler with fibreglass filtersUrban (where?): 0.3–0.6 particles/m3; Suburban (where?): 0.1–0.3 particles/m3Not specifiedFibresUrban: 1000–1400 µm; Suburban: 600–1000 µmBlack: Urban (77%), Suburban (82%); Other: Green, Red, Brown, TransparentNot specifiedUrban areas had higher MP fibre concentrations and sizes than suburban areas. Wind direction and human activities likely sources.
Azmi et al., Malaysia (2023) [21] UrbanSuspended samplesHigh-volume sampler16.39–96.81 µg/m3/day97 to 775 particles/m2/dayFibres70–5429 µm; larger at 10 m elevationNot specifiedNot specifiedLarger MPs found at higher elevations; higher ingestion risk for children, with elevated estimated daily intake.
Hashim et al., Malaysia (2023) [22]Urban and ruralDeposited samplesDust deposition gauges (wet & dry)582 ± 55 particles/m2/day (UTMKL); 983 ± 146 particles/m2/day (Timah Tasoh)480 particles across locationsFibres (>80%), fragments, films50–5000 µmMost abundant: Transparent/White, Black; Other: Red, Blue, Green, Brown, Yellow, OrangeNot specifiedTimah Tasoh (rural) had more MPs than Kuala Lumpur, suggesting open spaces and wind patterns aid dispersion.
Hasnatul et al., Malaysia (2023) [23]UrbanSuspended samplesHigh-volume sampler on rooftopNot specifiedUp to 2000 particles/m2/dayFibres (92%), fragments300–5000 µm>50% Black; Other: White, Red, Blue, Orange, YellowNot specifiedNo significant correlation between MP levels and meteorological data due to low sample numbers. Larger MPs linked to nearby urban development.
Hee et al., Malaysia (2023) [24]2 urban sites and 1 coastal siteDeposited samplesPassive samplers114–689 MP/m2/dayNot specifiedFragments (54%), fibres≤5–50 µm (92%)Not specifiedCellulose (51%), polyacrylamide (40%), HDPE (16%), PS (13%)Long-range MP transport noted; deposition highest during Northeast monsoon, indicating wind speed’s role in distribution.
Limsiriwong et al., Thailand (2023) [12]UrbanPersonal air samplesPersonal air samplers (breathing zone)Max: 3964 ± 2575 MP/m3 (university waste officers)131 to 5460 pieces in 8 hFibres, some fragmentsNot specifiedNot specifiedNot specifiedHighest exposure for waste-segregation officers; weak correlations with temperature/humidity. Linked to plastic-handling activities.
Romarate II et al. Philippines (2023) [13]UrbanSuspended samplesRespirable dust sampler0.001–0.023 SAMPs155 particles across 17 locations; max 19/siteFibres (88%), fragments (6%), films (5%), granules (1%)159–4807 µmBlack (39%), Blue (25%), Brown (14%), Others <10%PET (73.53%), polyamide, PP, polyvinyl fluorideMPs confirmed in Metro Manila air; fibres dominant; polyester most common. Highest SAMPs in Muntinlupa and Mandaluyong.
Sarathana et al., Thailand (2023) [25]UrbanSuspended samplesHigh-volume air samplerAverage: 333.42 ± 142.99 n/m3; Dumpsite: 581.90 ± 28.39 n/m3; Roadside: 349.53 ± 18.53 n/m3; Park: 312.45 ± 50.43 n/m3Not specifiedFragments (97.2%), fibres (2.8%)Fragments: 2.35–196.65 µm, Fibres: 72.89–3586.14 µmNot specifiedPE, PU, PP, PS, CellophaneHighest AMP concentrations at dumpsites and roadsides; fragments dominant. No correlation with TSP, suggesting varied sources.
Chenappan et al., Malaysia (2024) [26]CoastalDeposited samplesPassive sampling5476 ± 3796 particles/m2/dayUp to 15,562 particles/m2/day>99% fibresNot specifiedTransparent (38%), Blue (25%), Black (20%), Red (13%), Others (4%)PES, PE, PPSignificant airborne MPs in Terengganu, mostly fibres; heavy metals detected, indicating health risks.
Hidayat et al., Indonesia (2024) [27]UrbanSuspended samplesMulti-nozzle cascade impactor1.03–14.27 particles/m3563 particlesFragments (77%), some fibres, granules3.14–512 µmNot specifiedPE (97–99%)Higher SAMP concentrations in Bandung during dry periods; multiple pollution sources like traffic and industry suggested.
Jannah et al., Indonesia (2024) [28]UrbanSuspended samplesHigh-volume air sampler0.42–0.86 particles/Nm34576 particles across 4 sitesFragments (39%), films (37%), fibres (25%)Not specifiedBlack (47%), Brown (20%), Transparent (16%), Yellow (6%), Red (6%), Blue (2%), Purple (1%), Green (1%), Orange (<1%)Not specifiedBlack fragmented MPs dominated; fibres and films present. Vehicle activity (e.g., tires) likely major source.
Myat et al., Thailand (2024) [29]Mixture of urban and suburban Suspended samplesHigh-volume air samplerRoadside: 0.09–1.54 (0.80 ± 0.43) particles/m3; Residential: 0.20–1.09 (0.62 ± 0.27) particles/m3Not specifiedFragments (94.8–99.7%)6–4950 µm; most <100 µmBlack (90.8–99.7%), Gray (0.4–7%)ABS, EP, NY, PES, PET, PMMA, PURoadside AMP levels higher than residential; black fragments dominate, likely from tire wear and dust.
Winijkul et al., Thailand (2024) [30]Peri-urbanDeposited samplesAutomated precipitation sampler (wet & dry)Wet: 285 particles/m2/day; Dry: 199 particles/m2/day; Total: 325 particles/m2/dayNot specifiedWet: Fibres (93%), fragments (6%), films (1%); Dry: Fibres (94%), fragments (6%)Wet: 121–4990 µm; Dry: 132–4541 µmWet: White (80%), Brown (12%), Blue (5%), Others (1%); Dry: White (84%), Brown (9%), Blue (5%), Others (1%)PP, PET, PU, Polyethylene acrylate, Poly (ethyl acrylate), Poly (11-bromoundecyl acrylate), CellophaneWet deposition had higher MP flux than dry; fibres dominate in both. Wet deposition key for atmospheric MP removal.
Note: Polyethylene: PE, polypropylene: PP, polystyrene: PS, polyethylene terephthalate: PET, polyacrylate: PAK, polyvinyl stearate: PVS, ethylene/propylene copolymer: EPC, styrene/butadiene rubber: SBR, ethylene/propylene/diene rubber: EPDM, polyurethane: PU, polybutadiene: PB, Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene: ABS, epoxy resin: EP, nylon: NY, polymethyl methacrylate: PMMA, SAMP: suspended atmospheric microplastics.
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Abd Rahim, N.N.; Peng, P.W.Y.; Shahrir, N.F.; Wan Mahiyuddin, W.R.; Sayed Mohamed Zain, S.M.; Ismail, R. Characteristics, Distribution, and Sources of Atmospheric Microplastics in Southeast Asia: A Scoping Review. Atmosphere 2025, 16, 515. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16050515

AMA Style

Abd Rahim NN, Peng PWY, Shahrir NF, Wan Mahiyuddin WR, Sayed Mohamed Zain SM, Ismail R. Characteristics, Distribution, and Sources of Atmospheric Microplastics in Southeast Asia: A Scoping Review. Atmosphere. 2025; 16(5):515. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16050515

Chicago/Turabian Style

Abd Rahim, Nur Nabila, Patrick Wee Yao Peng, Nurul Farehah Shahrir, Wan Rozita Wan Mahiyuddin, Sharifah Mazrah Sayed Mohamed Zain, and Rohaida Ismail. 2025. "Characteristics, Distribution, and Sources of Atmospheric Microplastics in Southeast Asia: A Scoping Review" Atmosphere 16, no. 5: 515. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16050515

APA Style

Abd Rahim, N. N., Peng, P. W. Y., Shahrir, N. F., Wan Mahiyuddin, W. R., Sayed Mohamed Zain, S. M., & Ismail, R. (2025). Characteristics, Distribution, and Sources of Atmospheric Microplastics in Southeast Asia: A Scoping Review. Atmosphere, 16(5), 515. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16050515

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