Vehicle Ammonia Emissions Measured in An Urban Environment in Sydney, Australia, Using Open Path Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experiment
2.1. Site
Vehicle Fleet Statistics
2.2. Instrumentation
2.2.1. Open Path Infrared Fourier Transform (OP-FTIR) Spectrometer
2.2.2. In situ Trace Gas Analyser
2.2.3. Mobile Air Quality Station (MAQ station)
2.2.4. Meteorological Data
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Meteorological Data
3.2. Uncertainty Analysis OP-FTIR Data
3.3. Validation of OP-FTIR Data
3.4. Measured Mole-Fractions
3.5. Ratio to CO
3.6. Emission Factor
3.7. Comparison to GMR2008 Emissions Inventory
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Industrial Sources of NH3, NOx and CO
Summer | CO2:CO ppmv:ppbv | Intercept ppmv | r2 | N |
---|---|---|---|---|
all | 0.172 ± 0.001 | 387.7 ± 0.1 | 0.66 | 2260 |
AM | 0.168 ± 0.002 | 387.9± 0.2 | 0.76 | 461 |
PM | 0.101 ± 0.002 | 391.0 ± 0.2 | 0.66 | 533 |
NE | 0.083 ± 0.004 | 393.7 ± 0.6 | 0.46 | 488 |
SE | 0.082 ± 0.002 | 394 ± 0.3 | 0.55 | 988 |
SW | 0.123 ± 0.004 | 394.3 ± 0.8 | 0.65 | 473 |
NW | 0.117 ± 0.005 | 394.2 ± 1.0 | 0.65 | 380 |
Weekend | 0.217 ± 0.003 | 384.1 ± 0.2 | 0.65 | 640 |
Weekday | 0.159 ± 0.001 | 388.8 ± 0.1 | 0.66 | 1620 |
Winter | ||||
all | 0.108 ± 0.0005 | 396.1 ± 0.1 | 0.84 | 1971 |
AM | 0.103 ± 0.0010 | 399.0 ± 0.2 | 0.82 | 448 |
PM | 0.0769 ± 0.0015 | 397.0 ± 0.2 | 0.88 | 374 |
NE | 0.0503 ± 0.0059 | 403.5 ± 1.2 | 0.47 | 84 |
SE | 0.0487 ± 0.0038 | 400.2 ± 0.5 | 0.49 | 170 |
SW | 0.0786 ± 0.0013 | 400.5 ± 0.5 | 0.83 | 687 |
NW | 0.0831 ± 0.0012 | 400.1 ± 0.4 | 0.82 | 966 |
Weekend | 0.109 ± 0.001 | 395.0 ± 0.1 | 0.81 | 552 |
Weekday | 0.108 ± 0.001 | 396.5 ± 0.1 | 0.86 | 1419 |
References
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Light Vehicles | Heavy Vehicles | Total Light | Total Heavy | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
North or East | South or West | North or East | South or West | |||
Week days | ||||||
* A6 | 19,779 | 19,779 | 2193 | 2193 | 39,558 | 4386 |
A44 | 149,760 | 155,226 | 15,676 | 18,541 | 304,986 | 34,217 |
** M4 | 67,702 | 64,908 | 8544 | 7493 | 132,609 | 16,037 |
Weekend | ||||||
* A6 | 18,037 | 18,037 | 712 | 712 | 36,074 | 1424 |
A44 | 118,203 | 141,734 | 3811 | 5464 | 259,937 | 9275 |
** M4 | 56,244 | 63,102 | 2970 | 2385 | 119,346 | 5355 |
Total Trips | ||||||
Week days | 237,241 | 239,913 | 26,413 | 28,227 | 477,153 | 266,325 |
Weekend | 192,484 | 222,873 | 7493 | 8561 | 415,357 | 16,054 |
Target Gas Species | Micro-Window Wavelength Limits (cm−1) | Interfering Species |
---|---|---|
* NH3 | 900–945, 955–995 | H2O |
CO, CO2, N2O | 2150–2280 | H2O |
CH4 | 3001–3140 | H2O |
Species | Instrument | Reference |
---|---|---|
NOx, NO2, NO | Teledyne T204 analyser | Teldyne API, San Diego, CA, USA |
CO | Teledyne T300 | Teldyne API, San Diego, CA, USA |
SO2 | Teldyne Model 100T | Teldyne API, San Diego, CA, USA |
PM2.5, PM10 | ThermoFisher 1405-DF TEOM | Thermofisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA 02451 |
Neph 450, 635, total | Ecotech, AURORA 3000 Integrated Nepholometer | Knoxfield Vic 3180, Australia |
Wind speed, direction | Met-One MET505 | Met-One, Grants Pass or 97526, USA |
Temperature, Humidity | Vaisala HMP155 | Vaisala, Helsinki, Finland |
Error Source | Relative Error (%) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CO2 | CO | CH4 | NH3 | |||||
Sys | Rand | Sys | Rand | Sys | Rand | Sys | Rand | |
Pressure (2 hPa) | 0.2 | 0.05 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.05 | 0.3 | 0.1 |
Temperature (3 °C) | 0.3 | 0.03 | 1.4 | 0.1 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0.7 | 0.1 |
polynomial | 0.9 * | - | 0 * | - | 1.0 * | - | 1.0 | - |
FOV | 1.8 * | - | 5.4 * | - | 1.2 * | - | 1.4 | - |
Path-length | 0.25 | - | 0.25 | - | 0.25 | - | 0.25 | - |
HITRAN | 5 | - | 2 | - | 5 | - | 5 | - |
Spectrum fit | 0.30 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 13 | ||||
Total | 5.4 | 0.31 | 5.9 | 1.0 | 5.3 | 1.0 | 5.4 | 12.9 |
Target Gas Species | Background | RMS Noise | ** % Background | * Detection Limit |
---|---|---|---|---|
CO2 (ppmv) | ~400 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 2 ppmv |
CO (ppbv) | ~50 | ~2 | 4 | 6 ppbv |
CH4 (ppbv) | ~1820 | ~2 | 0.1 | 6 ppbv |
NH3 (ppbv) | ~2 | 0.3 | 15 | 1 ppbv |
Summer | NH3:CO ppbv:ppbv | r2 | N | NOx:CO ppbv:ppbv | r2 | N |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
all | 0.0197 ± 0.0002 | 0.63 | 2260 | 0.120 ± 0.001 | 0.73 | 1573 |
AM | 0.0180 ± 0.0003 | 0.68 | 461 | 0.154 ± 0.003 | 0.83 | 334 |
PM | 0.0219 ± 0.0004 | 0.62 | 533 | 0.0941 ± 0.0021 | 0.67 | 386 |
NE | 0.0167 ± 0.0007 | 0.51 | 488 | 0.147 ± 0.003 | 0.80 | 720 |
SE | 0.0146 ± 0.0004 | 0.60 | 988 | 0.100 ± 0.005 | 0.53 | 366 |
SW | 0.0112 ± 0.0004 | 0.57 | 473 | 0.101 ± 0.003 | 0.60 | 638 |
NW | 0.0109 ± 0.0005 | 0.53 | 380 | 0.127 ± 0.004 | 0.75 | 311 |
Weekend | 0.0213 ± 0.0004 | 0.55 | 640 | 0.0700 ± 0.0018 | 0.54 | 327 |
Weekdays | 0.0193 ± 0.0002 | 0.64 | 1620 | 0.125 ± 0.001 | 0.75 | 1246 |
Winter | ||||||
all | 0.0111 ± 0.0001 | 0.60 | 1971 | 0.132 ± 0.001 | 0.71 | 1650 |
AM | 0.0087 ± 0.0001 | 0.51 | 448 | 0.140 ± 0.002 | 0.69 | 390 |
PM | 0.0200 ± 0.0004 | 0.79 | 374 | 0.129 ± 0.003 | 0.82 | 344 |
NE | 0.0207 ± 0.0018 | 0.62 | 84 | 0.163 ± 0.016 | 0.58 | 78 |
SE | 0.0138 ± 0.0006 | 0.73 | 170 | 0.060 ± 0.008 | 0.32 | 132 |
SW | 0.0074 ± 0.0002 | 0.70 | 687 | 0.121 ± 0.003 | 0.77 | 585 |
NW | 0.0066 ± 0.0002 | 0.54 | 966 | 0.120 ± 0.003 | 0.66 | 858 |
Weekend | 0.0086 ± 0.0001 | 0.57 | 552 | 0.0984 ± 0.0013 | 0.7 | 514 |
Weekdays | 0.0122 ± 0.0001 | 0.63 | 1419 | 0.158 ± 0.001 | 0.78 | 1136 |
Location | Reference | Method; Duration | NH3:CO ppbv/ppbv | NH3:CO2 ppbv/ppmv | EF g kg−1 Fuel |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Auburn | This work | OP-FTIR 34 weeks | 0.018–0.022 | 0.23 | 0.25 |
Auburn | [53] | GMR2008 Inventory | 0.015 | ||
Toronto | [19] | OP-FTIR over highway; 2 weeks | 0.023 | ||
San Francisco | [18] | On-road, roadside, QCL, days | 0.031 ± 0.005 | 0.49 ± 0.06 | |
Los Angeles | [18] | On-road, QCL, 3 days | 0.027 | 0.49 ± 0.06 | |
Princeton | [18] | On-road, roadside, QCL, 3 days | 0.029 ± 0.007 | ||
Californian South Coast Basin | [9] | Airborne | 0.031–0.038 | ||
California | [10] | Tailpipe | 0.46 | ||
Zurich, Switzerland | [55] | CRDS, On-road, 1 week | 0.212 | ||
Tartu, Estonia | [55] | CRDS, On-road, 1 week | 0.415 | ||
Tallinn, Estonia | [55] | CRDS, On-road, 1 week | 0.199 | ||
Houston | [15] | On-road 18 h Tunnel City Wide | 0.33 ± 0.05 0.27 ± 0.05 0.35 ± 0.04 | ||
Denver | [15] | On-road. Open path sensor 17 h | 0.40 ± 0.06 | ||
Beijing | [15] | On-road Open path sensor 53 h | 0.36 ± 0.05 | ||
Baoding China | [15] | On-road Open path sensor 11 h 2013 On-road 2014 | 0.51 ± 0.08 0.43 ± 0.07 | ||
Shijiazhuang | [15] | On-road, Open path sensor 7 h 2013 On-road 2014 | 0.48 ± 0.07 0.56 ± 0.08 | ||
Los Angeles | [27] | roadside | 0.49 ± 0.02 | ||
Denver | [27] | roadside | 0.38 ± 0.08 | ||
West Los Angeles | [56] | tailpipe | 0.061 | ||
San Francisco | [20] | road tunnel 1999 road tunnel 2006 | 0.34 ± 0.02 | 0.64 ± 0.04 0.40 ± 0.02 |
Summer | NH3:CO2 ppb:ppm | r2 | N |
---|---|---|---|
all | 0.088 ± 0.002 | 0.56 | 2664 |
WS > 0.5 | 0.094 ± 0.002 | 0.52 | 1866 |
AM | 0.091 ± 0.003 | 0.73 | 353 |
PM | 0.211 ± 0.012 | 0.52 | 307 |
Weekend | 0.082 ± 0.004 | 0.45 | 556 |
Weekday | 0.095 ± 0.002 | 0.53 | 1310 |
Weekend AM | 0.084 ± 0.004 | 0.78 | 108 |
Weekday AM | 0.09 ± 0.004 | 0.70 | 245 |
Winter | NH3:CO2 ppb:ppm | r2 | N |
all | 0.094 ± 0.002 | 0.56 | 2482 |
WS > 0.5 | 0.076 ± 0.002 | 0.51 | 1971 |
AM | 0.067 ± 0.003 | 0.53 | 448 |
PM | 0.213 ± 0.01 | 0.69 | 223 |
Weekend | 0.071 ± 0.003 | 0.52 | 552 |
Weekday | 0.077 ± 0.002 | 0.51 | 1419 |
Weekend AM | 0.06 ± 0.005 | 0.52 | 125 |
Weekday AM | 0.066 ± 0.003 | 0.53 | 323 |
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Phillips, F.A.; Naylor, T.; Forehead, H.; Griffith, D.W.T.; Kirkwood, J.; Paton-Walsh, C. Vehicle Ammonia Emissions Measured in An Urban Environment in Sydney, Australia, Using Open Path Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 208. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10040208
Phillips FA, Naylor T, Forehead H, Griffith DWT, Kirkwood J, Paton-Walsh C. Vehicle Ammonia Emissions Measured in An Urban Environment in Sydney, Australia, Using Open Path Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy. Atmosphere. 2019; 10(4):208. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10040208
Chicago/Turabian StylePhillips, Frances A., Travis Naylor, Hugh Forehead, David W. T. Griffith, John Kirkwood, and Clare Paton-Walsh. 2019. "Vehicle Ammonia Emissions Measured in An Urban Environment in Sydney, Australia, Using Open Path Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy" Atmosphere 10, no. 4: 208. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10040208