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Article

Influence of Temperature on the Autumn Population Structure of Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) in Western Poland

by
Przemysław Strażyński
,
Wojciech Kubasik
* and
Marcin Baran
Institute of Plant Protection–National Research Institute, W. Węgorka 20, 60-318 Poznań, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2664; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112664
Submission received: 21 October 2025 / Revised: 14 November 2025 / Accepted: 18 November 2025 / Published: 20 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)
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Abstract

The bird cherry–oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi L.) constitutes approximately 70–80% of all aphid individuals found on cereal crops in Poland. It is considered one of the most economically important cereal pests, causing indirect damage through virus transmission and leading to substantial yield losses in agricultural crops. Previous studies have shown that the anholocyclic development of this species is strongly correlated with temperature patterns. Between 2018 and 2022, an analysis of the population structure of R. padi (gynoparae, males, and anholocyclic forms) was conducted during the autumn periods using a Johnson suction trap in Western Poland (Greater Poland region), in an area cultivated mainly with cereals. In years with a higher number of days characterized by mean daily air temperatures known to induce changes in R. padi biology, a marked decrease in the proportion of males within autumn populations was observed, along with a delayed onset of their occurrence. In each year of the study, temperature conditions conducive to the development of anholocyclic forms of R. padi were recorded. The abundance of individual morphs and forms of R. padi in autumn collections using the Johnson suction trap was distinctly variable and characterized primarily by a relatively low proportion of males in the catches (except for the years 2020–2021) within the total number of aphids of this species collected. An opposite trend was observed in these years regarding the proportion of anholocyclic forms of R. padi (2.61% of the entire population in 2020 and 3.51% in 2021).

1. Introduction

The development of aphids is closely associated with the influence of abiotic factors, particularly the interaction between photoperiod and temperature. In Poland, the vast majority of aphid species reproduce holocyclically in natural environments, completing a full life cycle that includes parthenogenetic females (and alate vivioparous females) and a sexual generation. The holocycle consists of one sexual generation and several parthenogenetic generations, whereas in anholocyclic populations the sexual generation is absent. In the temperate climate zone, in temperate regions of Europe, including Central European conditions, populations of certain aphid species may develop both holo- and anholocyclically—that is, without the sexual generation, consisting solely of parthenogenetic females [1]. The anholocyclic forms of Rhopalosiphum padi (Linnaeus 1758) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) captured in autumn do not differ morphologically from holocyclic forms; they are identified within the entire aphid population based on differences in embryonic coloration. R. padi is the most abundant aphid species occurring on cereal crops in Poland—accounts for approximately 70–80% of all aphid specimens. In its holocyclic development, it utilizes a primary host (Prunus padus L.) and secondary hosts, mainly cereals, maize, and numerous grass species. In temperate climates, most holocyclic aphid species produce sexual morphs in autumn, in response to gradually shortening photoperiod and decreasing temperatures [2,3,4,5,6]. Photoperiodism plays a significant role as a regulator of various life processes and activities in aphids. These insects are particularly sensitive to light stimuli, which they perceive through a highly specialized neuro-sensory system via photoreceptor cells [7,8]. Light intensity, by affecting neural cells, induces the production of hormonal substances, which in turn may determine the sex of the offspring [9].
Over the past several decades, progressive global climate warming has been observed. This ongoing warming trend is manifested by an increase in the number of extremely hot days, accompanied by a decline in the frequency of extremely cold days [10]. Weather and environmental anomalies resulting from global warming have a significant impact on the entire biosphere, with particularly pronounced effects on aphids, which respond rapidly and strongly to changes in climatic factors [6,11]. The evolutionary adaptation of aphids to rapidly respond to temperature changes is primarily a consequence of their small body size and short generation time, which together enable a dynamic increase in population size. Temperature conditions, along with the quality of host plants, influence the number of aphid generations [12,13,14]. Aphids have the lowest developmental threshold temperature and the lowest effective temperature sum required for the development of a single generation among all insect groups [15]. The shift in aphid life cycles toward anholocyclic development is a direct consequence of climate warming. As a result, climate warming reduces the genetic diversity of aphid fauna by decreasing the occurrence of sexual forms, particularly males. Due to their rapid responses to temperature changes, aphids can serve as effective bioindicators of climate change [6,8,16,17].
The timing of the temperature impulse to induce developmental changes has no significant effect on aphid phenology [6]. Appropriately higher temperatures can delay or prolong the development of gynoparae, increase fecundity, and shorten the maturation period of generations; however, temperatures above 25 °C sustained for several days induce continuous parthenogenesis. Observations conducted in autumn 1989 on winter cereal crops documented an unprecedented aphid outbreak for the first time. It was demonstrated that the effect of shortening photoperiod on aphid development was disrupted by high temperatures. In controlled laboratory studies using climate chamber conditions, it was confirmed that developmental cycle changes in the bird cherry-oat aphid are induced by sufficiently high temperatures. It was observed that at temperatures ≥ 25 °C, the entire population, which previously exhibited holocyclic development, reproduces permanently by parthenogenesis becoming potential vectors of Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus (BYDV) [18].
Under field conditions, temperatures in May and June have the greatest influence on the emergence of anholocyclic morphs of R. padi. Conversely, prolonged elevated temperatures during the autumn period facilitate their unrestricted development on winter cereals [8,18,19]. Under conditions of a warming climate, a persistent anholocyclic development in aphids does not trigger the production of alate morphs that migrate to the winter host, where oviparous females and males are produced. Further development of anholocyclic forms depends exclusively on monocotyledonous plants. In autumn, aphid development on winter cereals is prevented by the physiological zero temperature of viviparous (mobile) forms, which is approximately −6 °C [15,20]. In the 1982/1983 season in the Netherlands, colonies of the bird cherry-oat aphid were observed on winter cereals until the end of December [21]. It is precisely these anholocyclic aphid forms that represent the most important potential vectors of viral diseases in cereals [6,22,23,24,25,26,27,28]. The patterns of warm and cold air masses entering Poland result in the warmest regions being the southwestern and western parts of the country. These regions were the first to record anholocyclic forms of R. padi in field crops, as well as winter cereals exhibiting symptoms of BYDV infection [20].
The aim of the study was to analyze the autumn population structure of R. padi (L.) in western Poland during 2018–2022, with particular emphasis on the proportion of holo- and anholocyclic forms and the influence of thermal conditions (number of days with temperatures ≥ 23 °C) on their population dynamics. It is hypothesized that an increase in the number of warm days (≥23 °C) during the growing season affects the population structure of R. padi (L.), leading to a higher proportion of anholocyclic forms and a concurrent decrease in the number of males within autumn populations.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Aphid Sampling

Aphid sampling was conducted from 2018 to 2022 spanning from early May to the end of October, using a 12.2 m Johnson suction trap (JST) [29] in Winna Góra (West of Poland: 52°12′16.8″ N 17°26′54.3″ E). This is a predominantly agricultural region, characterized by a marked predominance of cereals and rapeseed as the principal cultivated crops. The JST is a standardized device specifically designed for the continuous collection of airborne insects, particularly aphids. It functions by drawing air through a vertical tube using a suction fan, thereby capturing insects transported by air currents into a collecting vessel. This method enables consistent, spatially and temporally comparable monitoring of the abundance and population dynamics of airborne insects, independent of local field conditions. Identification was carried out using the existing collection of permanent slides as well as relevant identification keys and catalogues [1,30]. Among individuals collected in autumn (from September to the end of October), males—distinguishable by the distinct morphology of their copulatory organs—and anholocyclic forms of R. padi were isolated. For this purpose, aphids were placed in tubes containing 75% ethyl alcohol and subsequently prepared under a stereoscopic microscope to determine the coloration of embryos (holocyclic forms exhibiting light gray coloration, anholocyclic forms dark brown) [31].

2.2. Meteorological Data

During the study years, the number of days with mean daily temperatures of 25 °C and above, as well as within the range of 23–24 °C, was also recorded. The data were obtained from a meteorological station located in Winna Góra.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

Correlation analyses were based on yearly data (2018–2022) obtained from continuous JST monitoring. Spearman’s rank (ρ) and Pearson’s linear (r) correlation coefficients were calculated to assess the strength and direction of the relationship between the number of warm days (≥23 °C) during the growing season and the proportion of anholocyclic forms captured in autumn. Linear regression was applied for graphical visualization of the trend. All analyses were performed in R v.4.3.3 (R Core Team, 2023) using the stats and ggplot2 packages.

3. Results

The abundance of different morphs and forms of R. padi in autumn collections using the JST is presented in Table 1. Over the five-year study period, a marked variation in their abundance was observed, primarily reflected by a relatively low proportion of males (except in the years 2020–2021) within the total number of aphids captured. An opposite trend was observed regarding the ratio of anholocyclic forms of R. padi during the study period. In years with a higher number of days featuring mean daily air temperatures ≥ 25 °C and within the 23–24.9 °C range, a marked decline in the proportion of males in autumn populations was recorded. Conversely, the abundance of anholocyclic forms of R. padi—potential vectors of BYDVs in winter cereals—increased. In addition to the reduction in male abundance during warmer years, a delay in their appearance was also noted. The earliest male captures occurred in 2020 (7 September—week 37) and 2021 (14 September—week 38), while the latest were recorded in 2019 (11 October—week 41) and 2022 (14 October—week 42).
Anholocyclic forms of R. padi in collections using the JST in Winna Góra appeared every year. They were captured earliest in 2019 (9 September) and 2022 (10 September)—week 37. Conversely, the latest appearance of these forms was recorded in 2020 (4 October—week 40). The peak abundance of anholocyclic R. padi forms occurred in each study year around week 42, approximately mid-October (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5).
Aggregated data indicated interannual variation in the proportion of anholocyclic forms in autumn samples, ranging from 12.3 to 15.9% in 2018–2019, and 3.7–5.4% in 2020–2021 to 14.2% in 2022. Peaks in abundance typically occurred in week 42, while in 2022 they were observed in week 44. The number of days with T ≥ 25 °C was strongly and positively correlated with the proportion of anholocyclic forms (ρ = 0.975, p = 0.0048), and negatively with the proportion of males (ρ = −0.975, p = 0.0048). The number of days with temperatures of 23–24.9 °C showed a positive correlation with the proportion of anholocyclic forms (ρ = 0.90, p = 0.037) and a negative correlation with the proportion of males (ρ = −0.80, p = 0.104; non-significant trend at n = 5). The total number of days with temperatures ≥ 23 °C (i.e., 23–24.9 °C + ≥25 °C) was almost perfectly correlated with the proportion of anholocyclic forms (ρ = 1.00, p ≈ 1.4 × 10−24) and negatively correlated with the proportion of males (ρ = −0.90, p = 0.037). The long-term analysis (1974–2022) showed a significant increase in the number of days with T ≥ 25 °C (τ = 0.474, p = 4 × 10−6; an increase of approximately 0.15 days per year). This trend confirms the influence of warming on the increasing proportion of anholocyclic forms in the R. padi population.
Due to the fact that temperatures near the ground (at the sites of aphid development and feeding) are usually higher than those recorded at a certain height, the effect of temperatures ≥ 23 °C was also analyzed.
A strong positive relationship was observed between the number of warm days (≥23 °C) during the growing season and the proportion of anholocyclic forms of R. padi captured in autumn (Figure 6). Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was ρ = 1.00 (p < 0.001), and Pearson’s linear correlation was r = 0.997 (p = 0.0002). Although the analysis is based on five annual observations (2018–2022), the consistency of the trend clearly indicates that higher thermal activity favors the persistence of anholocyclic populations.
The linear regression shown in the figure reveals a significant upward trend, confirming the pronounced influence of thermal conditions on the developmental cycle of this species.

4. Discussion

A typical characteristic of holocyclic development in aphids is the regular appearance of males. Photoperiod, but above all temperature determine the formation of sexual morphs in heteroecious aphids during host plant switching. Ruszkowska [20] in her studies reported that the reduction in the proportion of males in the population is a consequence of higher temperatures during morph differentiation, as these temperatures stimulate the development of gynoparae and thus extend the period of their presence (increasing the abundance of summer generations). Consequently, a delay in the production of males is also observed, resulting in their failure to migrate in a timely manner to the primary host (Prunus padus L.) in the autumn period. This leads to incomplete fertilization of oviparous females (oviparae), hence a reduced number of eggs or a high proportion of unfertilized eggs. Delayed male appearance (even until mid-October) has also been documented in previous studies [27,32,33]. It is worth noting that several decades ago, the appearance of males was already recorded at the beginning of September [34].
In the western regions of Poland, temperatures favorable for the development of these forms have been consistently observed for many years, exhibiting an increasing trend [32,33]. Further temperature increases allow for the projection that the issue of virus infections in winter cereals will occur annually, with a significant rise in incidence during particularly hot years. Warmer autumn periods also stimulate the production of more numerous alate forms, which, by dispersing within crops, increase the risk of secondary viral infections.
Over the past more than 30 years in Poland, days with temperatures inducing changes in the biology of R. padi, which enable the emergence of anholocyclic forms—potential virus vectors—have occurred almost annually. These temperature-induced changes cause considerable disturbances in the previously established life cycle patterns of R. padi, which are of practical importance for plant protection. Anholocyclic forms of this species occur annually, although the timing of their initial appearance and peak abundance on cereal crops varies among years depending on thermal conditions. It should be emphasized that temperatures experienced by aphids near the ground are usually higher than those recorded by meteorological stations, where measurements are taken at a height of 2 m. Such differences may reach several degrees Celsius [20] and can partly explain the earlier onset and prolonged activity of anholocyclic populations under field conditions. Conversely, prolonged exposure to extremely high temperatures (≥30 °C) significantly reduces aphid survival and fecundity, limiting their population growth potential [35,36]. It should be noted that the presence of aphids on crops does not necessarily indicate that the plants are infected with viruses, as aphids must first acquire the infection. In previous years, individuals of R. padi were observed in autumn on winter cereals at certain locations, while the host plants they fed on remained virus-free [37]. Currently, the threshold for aphid vector control is the detection of the first individuals in autumn. However, the presence of aphids does not necessarily equate to the occurrence of infection; therefore, representative aphid samples should be analyzed for the presence of viruses using immunoenzimatic (e.g., ELISA) or molecular techniques (e.g., PCR, RT-PCR, LAMP). Such procedures inevitably incur certain costs, but unnecessary spraying results in considerably higher expenses, wasted time and labor, as well as unnecessary environmental burden. In some countries, preventive insecticide treatments of winter cereals were obligatorily applied because, in warmer regions, the presence of anholocyclic aphid forms fully determined the epidemiology of BYDV [38]. The expansion of BYDV is a consequence of the spread of virus-carrying aphid vectors, a process facilitated by climate warming [27]. Considering this ongoing process, and particularly the increased number of days with threshold temperatures during the spring-summer period, further changes in the population structure of R. padi can be anticipated. A similar relationship has also been observed in other aphid species in Poland, including the peach aphid (Myzus persicae Sulz.), whose presence is associated with the risk of viral infection of winter oilseed rape crops by turnip yellows virus (TuYV) [39]. Field inspections combined with monitoring using the JST, alongside recording temperature data, constitute the most effective methods for signaling the timing of aphid flights and determining the abundance of aphids—potential virus vectors [16,20,24,32,40]. The increase in the occurrence of anholocyclic forms of R. padi and the subsequent territorial expansion of both aphids and viruses indicate an acceleration of global warming, and the presence of these forms in new areas may serve as an indicator of climate change [26,27].
The study supports the development of more effective control strategies by linking aphid population dynamics with thermal conditions. It demonstrates that monitoring the number of warm days (≥23 °C) can improve forecasting of anholocyclic form occurrence and associated virus transmission risk. The findings enable more precise timing of surveillance and control measures, promote threshold-based and region-specific management (particularly in western and southwestern Poland), and highlight the importance of integrating climate data into long-term pest management planning.

5. Conclusions

The results suggest that high temperatures during the autumn development of cereals and grasses favor the survival of anholocyclic forms, i.e., those that do not produce a sexual generation and overwinter as viviparous females. A reduction in the number of warm days, as observed in 2020, results in a partial shift in the population toward a holocyclic cycle involving the production of overwintering eggs. This relationship indicates that thermal conditions at the end of summer and the beginning of autumn are a key factor determining the population structure of R. padi. The obtained results confirm previous studies on the effect of temperature on the persistence of anholocyclic forms of R. padi in a temperate climate and complement earlier findings. Recognizing years favorable for anholocyclic persistence may support early warning systems and timing of insecticide applications in winter cereals. This predictive understanding can help optimize integrated pest management (IPM) strategies under climate warming scenarios.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, P.S. and W.K.; methodology, P.S.; software, W.K.; validation, W.K. and M.B.; formal analysis, W.K.; investigation, P.S.; resources, P.S.; data curation, W.K.; writing—original draft preparation, W.K.; writing—review and editing, P.S. and M.B.; visualization, W.K.; supervision, P.S.; project administration, P.S.; funding acquisition, P.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors used Microsoft Copilot (GPT-4) for language refinement. The authors have reviewed and edited the output and take full responsibility for the content of this publication.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Seasonal dynamics of the abundance of holo- and anholocyclic forms of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi in autumn collections using a JST in Winna Góra in 2018.
Figure 1. Seasonal dynamics of the abundance of holo- and anholocyclic forms of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi in autumn collections using a JST in Winna Góra in 2018.
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Figure 2. Seasonal dynamics of the abundance of holo- and anholocyclic forms of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi in autumn collections using a JST in Winna Góra in 2019.
Figure 2. Seasonal dynamics of the abundance of holo- and anholocyclic forms of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi in autumn collections using a JST in Winna Góra in 2019.
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Figure 3. Seasonal dynamics of the abundance of holo- and anholocyclic forms of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi in autumn collections using a JST in Winna Góra in 2020.
Figure 3. Seasonal dynamics of the abundance of holo- and anholocyclic forms of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi in autumn collections using a JST in Winna Góra in 2020.
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Figure 4. Seasonal dynamics of the abundance of holo- and anholocyclic forms of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi in autumn collections using a JST in Winna Góra in 2021.
Figure 4. Seasonal dynamics of the abundance of holo- and anholocyclic forms of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi in autumn collections using a JST in Winna Góra in 2021.
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Figure 5. Seasonal dynamics of the abundance of holo- and anholocyclic forms of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi in autumn collections using a JST in Winna Góra in 2022.
Figure 5. Seasonal dynamics of the abundance of holo- and anholocyclic forms of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi in autumn collections using a JST in Winna Góra in 2022.
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Figure 6. Relationship between the number of warm days (≥23 °C) and the proportion of anholocyclic forms in the population of Rhopalosihum padi in autumn (2018–2022). The linear regression line with equation and R2 value is shown.
Figure 6. Relationship between the number of warm days (≥23 °C) and the proportion of anholocyclic forms in the population of Rhopalosihum padi in autumn (2018–2022). The linear regression line with equation and R2 value is shown.
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Table 1. Population structure of autumn morphs of Rhopalosiphum padi in collections using a JST in Winna Góra during 2018–2022.
Table 1. Population structure of autumn morphs of Rhopalosiphum padi in collections using a JST in Winna Góra during 2018–2022.
YearsTemperatureGynoparaeMales
(% of the Population)		Anholocyclic Forms (% of Population)Ratio of Holo- to Anholocyclic FormsTotal Autumn Catch
≥25 °C23–24.9 °CTotal
201871219819123
(13.05%)		101
(10.72%)		8.10942
20191313261663203
(10.87%)		273
(14.63%)		6.101866
202044833541357
(28.80%)		123
(2.61%)		27.264711
2021461036041626
(31.08%)		184
(3.51%)		19.585230
202210112230,9294298
(12.20%)		4485
(12.73%)		6.9035,227
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Strażyński, P.; Kubasik, W.; Baran, M. Influence of Temperature on the Autumn Population Structure of Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) in Western Poland. Agronomy 2025, 15, 2664. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112664

AMA Style

Strażyński P, Kubasik W, Baran M. Influence of Temperature on the Autumn Population Structure of Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) in Western Poland. Agronomy. 2025; 15(11):2664. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112664

Chicago/Turabian Style

Strażyński, Przemysław, Wojciech Kubasik, and Marcin Baran. 2025. "Influence of Temperature on the Autumn Population Structure of Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) in Western Poland" Agronomy 15, no. 11: 2664. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112664

APA Style

Strażyński, P., Kubasik, W., & Baran, M. (2025). Influence of Temperature on the Autumn Population Structure of Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) in Western Poland. Agronomy, 15(11), 2664. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112664

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