Weed Species’ Diversity and Composition as Shaped by the Interaction of Management, Site, and Soil Variables in Olive Groves of Southern Greece
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Areas and Data Collection
- (a)
- Untreated olive groves or no treatment (used as the control in the current study)
- (b)
- Mowing: This involved 1–5 passes (average: 1.26; median: 1) from March to July (primarily in May) to trim weeds to a height of approximately 5 cm above the ground.
- (c)
- Rotary tiller: Farmers conducted 1–2 passes (with an average of 1.2 and a median of 1) from March to July, mainly in April, at a depth of ≤10 cm.
- (d)
- Animal grazing: Sheep and goats were used for grazing.
- (e)
- Herbicide application (glyphosate): This method involved 1–2 sprays (average: 1.2; median: 1) with glyphosate. The application rate of glyphosate varied among the areas due to differences in the targeted weeds and local practicalities [35]. In Chora and Peza, glyphosate was applied in the surveyed sites after the onset of rainfall between February and early April (primarily in March), while in Meramvello province, there was no use of herbicides for weed control.
2.2. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Responses of Plant Diversity to Weed Management Practices
3.2. Factors Affecting the Weed Community’s Composition
3.3. Weed Species’ Composition and Plant Diversity
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Unit | Range | Mean | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
All Sampling Sites | Peza | Meramvello | Chora | ||
Site | |||||
Elevation | m | 3–568 | 372.30 | 208.00 | 184.00 |
Management variables | |||||
Irrigation (water) | - | Yes—no | |||
Rotary tiller | - | Yes—no | |||
Grazing | - | Yes—no | |||
Without control 1 | - | Yes—no | |||
Mowing | - | Yes—no | |||
Chemical (herbicide: glyphosate) | - | Yes—no | |||
Soil variables | |||||
Sand 1 | % | 13.2–75.60 | 35.28 | 34.35 | 39.02 |
Silt 1 | % | 10.4–50 | 34.43 | 30.93 | 36.45 |
Clay 2 | % | 10–53.60 | 30.29 | 34.72 | 24.53 |
CEC 1 | meq/100 gr | 5.71–36.41 | 19.48 | 19.06 | 16.03 |
pH 1 | - | 4.9–7.90 | 7.70 | 7.23 | 7.36 |
EC 1 | mS/cm | 0.25–2.99 | 0.76 | 0.94 | 0.53 |
C 2 | % | 0.47–2.88 | 1.66 | 2.09 | 1.22 |
Soil organic matter (SOM) 1 | % | 0.94–5.76 | 3.32 | 4.19 | 2.44 |
CaCO3 1 | % | 0.05–88.00 | 46.37 | 3.12 | 26.88 |
ESP 1 | % | 0.454–12.09 | 1.27 | 2.21 | 1.95 |
NO3-N 1 | mg/kg | 3.03–81.9 | 18.41 | 21.22 | 13.12 |
Ntot 1 | mg/kg | 650–4600 | 2537.78 | 2130.25 | 1681.53 |
Na 1,3 | mg/kg | 19–460.00 | 35.28 | 34.35 | 39.02 |
K 1,3 | mg/kg | 56–1350 | 348.83 | 494.68 | 155.28 |
Ca 1,3 | mg/kg | 507–7618 | 3624.70 | 2904.11 | 3213.93 |
Mg | mg/kg | 39–813 | 127.26 | 227.15 | 143.54 |
P 1,3 | mg/kg | 1.15–82.62 | 14.29 | 18.79 | 12.74 |
Cu 1,3 | mg/kg | 0.54–115.00 | 3.27 | 17.50 | 13.97 |
Fe 1,3 | mg/kg | 3.35–135.60 | 7.73 | 34.14 | 18.53 |
Zn 1,3 | mg/kg | 0.25–5.96 | 0.94 | 1.78 | 0.63 |
B 1,3 | mg/kg | 0.02–3.87 | 1.07 | 1.16 | 0.51 |
Mn 3 | mg/kg | 0.69–41.5 | 5.20 | 2.47 | 9.41 |
Index | Parameter | Axis 1 | Axis 2 | Axis 3 | Axis 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Summary | |||||
Eigenvalues | 0.106 | 0.033 | 0.025 | 0.019 | |
Species–environment correlations | 0.712 | 0.608 | 0.557 | 0.529 | |
Cumulative percentage of variance of species–environment relation | 49.1 | 64.4 | 76.0 | 85.1 | |
Total variance (sum of all canonical eigenvalues) | 0.215 | ||||
Correlation matrix | |||||
Mg | −0.1127 | −0.2104 | 0.2556 | −0.1688 | |
Mn | 0.505 | −0.1097 | 0.1454 | 0.1238 | |
Irrigation | −0.1158 | 0.2104 | −0.0731 | −0.1669 | |
Rotary tiller | −0.1109 | 0.0808 | −0.1981 | 0.3145 | |
Grazing | −0.1625 | −0.2632 | −0.1536 | −0.2386 | |
Mowing | 0.3509 | −0.2418 | −0.0065 | 0.2003 | |
Chemical | 0.3224 | 0.4224 | 0.0471 | −0.1398 | |
Elevation | −0.1054 | 0.1724 | 0.2193 | 0.3248 |
Marginal Effects | Conditional Effects | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Variation Explained | Variable | Variation Explained | p | F |
Mn | 0.06 | Mn | 0.06 | 0.001 | 7.24 |
SOM | 0.04 | Chemical | 0.04 | 0.001 | 4.83 |
Chemical | 0.04 | Mowing | 0.03 | 0.003 | 3.54 |
Mowing | 0.04 | Elevation | 0.02 | 0.001 | 3.2 |
Grazing | 0.02 | Mg | 0.02 | 0.008 | 2.43 |
Zn | 0.02 | Rotary tiller | 0.01 | 0.023 | 2.08 |
EC | 0.02 | Grazing | 0.02 | 0.014 | 2.12 |
B | 0.02 | Irrigation | 0.02 | 0.023 | 2.11 |
Control | 0.02 | pH | 0.01 | 0.109 | 1.53 |
K | 0.02 | Silt | 0.01 | 0.042 | 1.85 |
Mg | 0.02 | Sand | 0.01 | 0.071 | 1.61 |
Elevation | 0.02 | SOM | 0.01 | 0.177 | 1.34 |
Irrigation | 0.02 | P | 0.01 | 0.122 | 1.51 |
Rotary tiller | 0.02 | B | 0.01 | 0.178 | 1.33 |
Sand | 0.02 | Control | 0.01 | 0.293 | 1.23 |
Fe | 0.02 | EC | 0.01 | 0.197 | 1.34 |
N | 0.01 | K | 0.01 | 0.314 | 1.12 |
CEC | 0.01 | Na | 0 | 0.445 | 0.99 |
pH | 0.01 | ESP | 0.02 | 0.098 | 1.49 |
CaCO3 | 0.01 | Ca | 0 | 0.341 | 1.06 |
Silt | 0.01 | N | 0.01 | 0.576 | 0.86 |
Na | 0.01 | Zn | 0 | 0.582 | 0.88 |
Ca | 0.01 | CaCO3 | 0.01 | 0.679 | 0.79 |
P | 0.01 | CEC | 0.01 | 0.769 | 0.67 |
Cu | 0.01 | NO3 | 0 | 0.82 | 0.66 |
ESP | 0.01 | Cu | 0 | 0.897 | 0.53 |
NO3 | 0.01 | Fe | 0.01 | 0.845 | 0.59 |
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Vahamidis, P.; Chachalis, D.; Akrivou, A.; Karanasios, E.; Ganopoulou, M.; Argiri, A.; Mandoulaki, A.; Hatzigiannakis, E.; Arampatzis, G.; Panagopoulos, A.; et al. Weed Species’ Diversity and Composition as Shaped by the Interaction of Management, Site, and Soil Variables in Olive Groves of Southern Greece. Agronomy 2024, 14, 640. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14030640
Vahamidis P, Chachalis D, Akrivou A, Karanasios E, Ganopoulou M, Argiri A, Mandoulaki A, Hatzigiannakis E, Arampatzis G, Panagopoulos A, et al. Weed Species’ Diversity and Composition as Shaped by the Interaction of Management, Site, and Soil Variables in Olive Groves of Southern Greece. Agronomy. 2024; 14(3):640. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14030640
Chicago/Turabian StyleVahamidis, Petros, Demosthenis Chachalis, Antigoni Akrivou, Evangelos Karanasios, Maria Ganopoulou, Apostolia Argiri, Athanasia Mandoulaki, Evangelos Hatzigiannakis, Georgios Arampatzis, Andreas Panagopoulos, and et al. 2024. "Weed Species’ Diversity and Composition as Shaped by the Interaction of Management, Site, and Soil Variables in Olive Groves of Southern Greece" Agronomy 14, no. 3: 640. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14030640