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Article

Polyethylene Terephthalate Hydrolysis Catalyzed by Deep Eutectic Solvents: COSMO-RS Screening and Experimental Validation

by
Nurasyqin Abdul Fattah
1,
Muhammad Zulhaziman Mat Salleh
1,*,
Nor Yuliana Yuhana
1,
Yusuf Suleiman Dambatta
2 and
Mohamed Kamel Hadj-Kali
3,*
1
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia
2
School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Qingdao Binhai University, Qingdao 266555, China
3
Chemical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Saud University, P.O. Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1154; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121154
Submission received: 3 November 2025 / Revised: 28 November 2025 / Accepted: 2 December 2025 / Published: 5 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Catalytic Materials)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Chemical recycling is one of the most prominent techniques that enables monomer recovery for plastics like polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which ultimately reduces the dependency on virgin material inputs. In this study, 40 deep eutectic solvents (DESs) were pre-screened using COSMO-RS to identify the best solvent for chemical recycling of PET. Quantitative evaluation was performed based on activity coefficients (γ) to assess solute–solvent interactions. Qualitatively, the sigma profile and sigma potential were analyzed to understand the polarity and affinity of each DES component. This study experimentally validated the two top-performing DESs based on COSMO-RS output. The DES formed by combining thymol with phenol (Thy/Phe (1:2)) achieved 100% PET degradation and 94.5% terephthalic acid (TPA) recovery from post-consumer PET in just 25 min. The rapid dissolution of PET into molten state accelerated the hydrolysis reaction, leading to efficient monomer recovery. The second DES, tetrabutylammonium bromide/sulfolane (TBABr/Sulf (1:7)), attained 93.7% PET degradation and 94% TPA recovery. The PET-to-solvent ratio used in this study was 0.75, while the PET-to-DES ratio in the mixture was only 0.15, the lowest reported for DES-assisted hydrolysis to date. Characterization of the recycled TPA confirmed a purity level comparable to its virgin grade, as verified by FT−IR analysis. This study presents two important outcomes. First, the use of COSMO-RS for DES selection provides a strong rationale for solvent choice in targeted reactions and processes. Second, the use of appropriate DES in this study helps reduce key parameters associated with depolymerisation process, including reaction time, temperature, and catalyst consumption.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Plastics were developed to address the limitations and scarcity of natural materials. They are versatile materials that can be made to serve various functionalities. However, inadequate recycling facilities contribute to the mismanagement of plastics wastes, which causes them to be visible across water and land [1]. Due to their synthetic nature, plastics like polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are extremely resistant to natural degradation, with an estimated lifespan of up to 93 years [2,3].
To address these challenges, the circular plastics approach was favoured in the place of traditional linear production as it emphasizes extending the life cycle of plastics through reuse and recycling [4]. Presently, mechanical recycling is the most widely adopted technology. Mechanical recycling has been shown to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, fossil-fuel usage, and landfill demand compared to virgin polymer production, with life-cycle assessments reporting energy savings of up to 130 million kilojoules per tonne of recycled plastics [5]. An issue with this pathway is that it often leads to material downcycling, quality reduction, and limited applications [6,7], which limits its progress toward a truly circular plastics economy.
Chemical recycling, on the other hand, offers a viable pathway to recover high-quality monomers that are comparable to virgin-grade materials [8,9], which essentially helps to reduce the reliance on using fossil fuel for new plastic production. Although still in its early stages, chemical recycling has gained increasing attention worldwide, with significant investments projected to scale its industrial deployment [10]. In Europe, this growth is critical for achieving the Circular Plastics Alliance’s (CPA) objective of using 10 million tons of recycled plastics in new products by 2025 [11].
Chemical recycling of PET can be performed using four techniques: (i) hydrolysis, (ii) methanolysis, (iii) aminolysis/ammonolysis, and (iv) glycolysis:
i
In hydrolysis, PET is broken down using water as a solvent under neutral, alkaline, or acidic conditions. The reaction typically requires higher temperature, pressure, and time, but these parameters can be adjusted with the use of an appropriate catalyst. The main monomers produced from this process are the primary PET building block called terephthalic acid (TPA) and ethylene glycol (EG) [12].
ii
Methanolysis operates under high pressure (2 to 4 MPa) and high temperatures (180–280 °C), yielding dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and EG as byproducts [12].
iii
Aminolysis uses amine-containing solutions like methylamine or ethanolamine, which then forms diamides of terephthalic acid and EG. Ammonolysis employs anhydrous ammonia in an EG medium under pressure to produce terephthalamide and EG [13].
iv
Finally, glycolysis breaks down PET through solvolytic degradation, forming BHET monomers while generating oligomers as by-products [14].
Among the above established methods, only glycolysis and methanolysis have reached commercial maturity [12]. Despite its potential solution to achieve true circularity, chemical recycling can exceed mechanical recycling in energy consumption, emissions, water use, and the release of hazardous substances [15]. Furthermore, short-term LCAs may underestimate chemical and particulate pollution which leads to unintended environmental leakage and potential health risks associated with microplastics and additive residues [16]. The net environmental benefit of any recycling method is determined by its full life-cycle impact. This emphasizes the critical need to develop recycling technologies that not only maintain material quality but also excel in environmental performance across all metrics.
Among all chemical recycling methods, alkaline hydrolysis is particularly attractive, although not yet industrially feasible. It can achieve complete depolymerization under comparatively mild conditions and tolerate contaminated waste while still yielding high-purity recycled TPA [17]. This potential has driven the exploration of innovative reaction media to enhance the process. Ionic liquids (ILs) and deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have emerged as next-generation solvents capable of mediating solvolytic depolymerization [18,19]. Other notable methods include microwave irradiation [20], surface modifications of PET [21], ultrasound technique [22], and enzymatic reactions [23], as well as hybrid methods such as combining DESs with microwave irradiation [24]. Despite this progress, the application of ILs and DESs to alkaline hydrolysis of PET remains underexplored, with fewer than ten studies reported in the literature [24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32].
As a versatile subclass of ILs, DESs exhibit unique tunability, making them adaptable to various processes. The synthesis of DESs is a straightforward process. It involves mixing two or more compounds, each capable of accepting or donating hydrogen bonds, in a specific molar ratio. This interaction results in a significant depression of the freezing point, thus producing a liquid that remains stable at room temperature [33]. DESs are appealing candidates as catalytic solvents due to their unique properties such as easy preparation protocol [34], low-cost [33], negligible vapour pressure [35], and regeneration ability without significant loss of activity [36]. These characteristics make them more suitable for industrial processes compared to ILs and classical organic solvents.
This work was therefore designed with two primary objectives. First, a list of DESs was selected from the literature, and their effectiveness as a medium for PET dissolution was assessed through computational screening using the COnductor-like Screening MOdel for Real Solvent (COSMO-RS) model. This predictive tool analyzes molecular properties for favorable solute–solvent interactions such as σ-profiles, σ-potential, and activity coefficients at infinite dilution. In this regard, COSMO-RS streamlined the selection process from many different combinations of DESs to a few promising ones, thus reducing the time and costs associated with the manual solvent screening procedure. Second, the promising DESs candidate identified in the first step were synthesized, characterized, and evaluated experimentally for their catalytic performance in PET degradation and subsequent TPA recovery. Previous studies have focused solely on ILs for depolymerization using COSMO-RS simulations [37]. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to integrate COSMO-RS computational screening with experimental evaluation of DESs for PET depolymerization.

2. Results

2.1. COSMO-RS Screening Results

Table 1 summarizes the 40 deep eutectic solvents (DESs) investigated in this work, detailing their hydrogen bond acceptors (HBAs), hydrogen bond donors (HBDs), molar ratios, and respective abbreviations. These DESs were selected from prior work based on their stability at room temperature to facilitate experimental procedures.

2.1.1. Logarithmic Activity Coefficient of PET in DESs as Predicted Using COSMO-RS

Within the framework of solid–liquid equilibria (SLE) [53,54], the activity coefficient (γ) reflects the non-ideality of a solute in a solvent, with lower γ values generally indicating stronger solute–solvent interactions and, therefore, higher solubility. Ideal behavior (γ = 1) implies that all molecular interactions are of similar strength, and no component is preferentially stabilized. In COSMO-RS, deviations from ideality are expressed as ln γ, with negative values corresponding to γ < 1, further supporting favorable solute–solvent interactions.
As per Equation (1), the chemical potential of a species (i) has a linear relationship with the logarithm of the activity coefficient. When the value of ln(γ) is negative, a lower chemical potential is required for the species to reach its standard state. This indicates that it is more energetically favorable for the species to remain in solution, leading to stronger interactions between solute and solvent. In short, a negative ln(γ) suggests high solubility of the solute in the solvent [37]. Figure 1 presents the logarithmic activity coefficients (ln(γ)) for all investigated DESs. Only six DESs exhibited negative ln(γ) values. The DESs are ranked according to their dissolving capacity and arranged from the highest to lowest capacity.
A clear trend can be observed among the commonly assessed HBAs and HBDs in this study which are choline chloride, thymol, menthol, and phenol. Choline chloride, despite the variations in its HBDs, could not outperform the strength of a pure choline chloride. This makes choline a less desirable choice for PET dissolution. On the other hand, thymol and menthol-based DESs showed immense potential, and the accurate selection of HBDs can significantly impact the overall performance of this type of DES in dissolving PET. Phenol also emerged as a strong candidate for use in DESs. However, when paired with choline chloride, the effectiveness of phenol is hindered because it is hindered by the strong nature of choline chloride which leads to suboptimal performance. Conversely, phenol proves highly effective when combined with other salts like thymol or menthol, as these combinations allow phenol’s strengths to complement those of the partner molecule.

2.1.2. σ-Profile and σ-Potential of DESs in Relation of PET

COSMO-RS is a computational method comprising two primary steps: (1) Quantum chemical calculations, where molecules are subjected to quantum chemical computations using a continuum solvation model. This generates a screening charge density (σ) on the molecular surface, represented as a σ-profile and (2) statistical thermodynamics calculations, which employ statistical thermodynamic principles. The σ-profile is used to compute molecular energy based on electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, and Van der Waals interactions. This process yields a σ-potential [55].
In essence, σ-profile describe the polarity distribution between solutes and solvents. There are three main regions that differentiate polarity, as shown in Figure 2. Regions A and C are the polar regions, with region A representing polar donor (HBD) and C representing polar acceptor (HBA). Region B, which lies between −0.0084 and 0.0084 eA−2, corresponds to the non-polar region [56]. Figure 2 categorizes σ-profile based on the five best-performing DESs, according to their negative ln (y) value. According to the σ-profile plots provided, PET exhibits most peaks around the non-polar region, with a smaller peak observed around the HBA area. Given the principle of “like attracts like”, the optimal DES for the dissolution process would ideally feature peaks within both the non-polar and HBD regions. This preference arises because the HBD components of the DES are expected to interact with the HBA constituents of PET. All the investigated DESs have compatibility with PET within its non-polar region.
Another descriptor that can be used to describe the interaction between PET and DES is the acquisition of σ-potential plot in COSMO-RS. The plot is expressed in Figure 3 below.
The σ-potential (μ(σ)) measures the system’s affinity for a surface of a given polarity (σ), thereby elucidating the nature of PET-DES interactions. Attractive interactions are indicated by a negative μ(σ) value, with the magnitude of the negativity corresponding to the strength of the interaction, whereas repulsive interactions are indicated by a positive value. In addition, the asymmetry of the σ-potential plot also reveals specific favorable interactions, where a negative potential in the HBD region denotes a tendency to interact with HBAs, while a negative potential in the HBA region denotes a tendency to interact with HBDs. For example, in Figure 3, the HBD of TBABr/Sulf (1:7) shows the strongest affinity for the HBA sites of PET, while the HBA component of Thy/PTSA-M (1:1) exhibits the highest affinity for the HBD sites of PET. However, interactions in these polar regions are not favorable due to the repulsive behavior of PET.
Figure 4 reviews the energy contribution of some best performing DESs in relation to the intermolecular interactions which are misfit (H_MF), hydrogen bonding (H_HB), and Van der Waals forces (H_vdW) [57].
In Figure 4, H_MF does not contribute to the overall interactions for all DESs as its positive contribution actually signifies an unfavourable effect. The H_vdW contribution is more negative than the H-bond contribution in COSMO-RS, indicating that attractive forces due to Van der Waals interactions play a more significant role in stabilizing the system compared to hydrogen bonding. Dispersion forces dominate the interactions between PET and the high-performing DESs due to the nonpolar nature of both components and their limited capacity for hydrogen bonding. As illustrated in the σ-potential plot, these DESs have only one site available for hydrogen bonding. All DESs investigated exhibited negative energy contribution as expected given their favourable solubility for PET. Several studies on the energy contributions of DESs or ILs in similar systems have discussed this [58,59].

2.2. Experimental Validation for Catalytic Hydrolysis of PET

Based on computational screening, three DESs with the highest dissolution capacity were selected for hydrolysis experiments. Due to its catalytic potential noted in previous studies, ChCl/mCre (1:2) was also studied as reference. Table 2 provides the information on the list of DESs used for catalytic study, along with their stability as a solvent. Thy/PTSA-M (1:2) and Thy/AA (1:1) are excluded from study due to their instability.
The first part of the experimental study is to assess the capacity of DES alone in dissolving PET. The solubility study was evaluated over a 60-min period at 130 °C. Conversion percentages are summarized in Table 3. In this study, PET solubility is assessed based on the changes in its physical state.
As indicated in Table 3, Thy/Phe (1:2) can fully solubilize PET, with complete solubility observed within only 15 min. TBABr/Sulf (1:7) showed full solubility at 60 min while ChCl/mCre (1:2) was not effective in solubilizing PET. PET in its molten state facilitates faster hydrolysis compared to when it is in solid state. This gives Thy/Phe (1:2) and TBABr/Sulf (1:7) the advantage to proceed with faster hydrolysis rates and milder conditions compared to using other DESs.
In the second experimental part, DESs were used as the primary solvent, with minimal water content in the aqueous NaOH solution. This approach was adopted due to the insolubility of solid NaOH in DES. Thy/Phe (1:2) and TBABr/Sulf (1:2) successfully depolymerized PET; however, both the resulting TPA and DES turned brown, possibly due to side reactions. ChCl/mCre (1:2) showed no evidence of depolymerization under these conditions. This discoloration hinders recyclability and requires additional purification steps to obtain pure white TPA powder. This led to a third approach, incorporating an equal weight ratio of DES to aqueous NaOH. Here, water was added to moderate the reaction intensity between DES and NaOH, with the goal of minimizing browning in the final product. Data on PET weight loss (%) and TPA powder yield are presented in Table 4.
The identity and purity of the produced monomer TPA were confirmed using FT−IR spectroscopy. As shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6, the FT−IR spectra of recycled TPA derived from commercial and post-consumer closely resembled those of virgin-grade TPA with a purity of 99%. Characteristic peaks at 3064 cm−1, 1673 cm−1, and 1280 cm−1 indicated the presence of -OH, C=O, and C-O functional groups, respectively. Any remaining residuals can be effectively removed through additional washing steps to ensure the purity of the final product.
The FT−IR spectrum of the PET feedstock shown in Figure A1 (Appendix A1) exhibits the characteristics that are absent in the spectrum of the recycled TPA product, which visually confirms the chemical transformation achieved through hydrolysis. In addition, the 1H and 13C NMR spectra for both the recovered and pure TPA are provided in Figure A2 and Figure A3 (Appendix A2). The agreement between the spectra [24] confirms the high chemical purity and successful recovery of TPA, showing no detectable signals from oligomeric residues or other organic impurities.

3. Discussion

The results provided by COSMO-RS align well with our experimental findings. Firstly, Thy/Phe (1:2) showed the highest negative ln(y) value and was able to completely break down PET without the need for NaOH. Regardless of the dilution effect, the Thy/Phe-based DES still turned brown after only 15 min when added together with NaOH. We then explored an alternative approach by pre-treating the PET with only DES for 15 min, during which no visible PET was observed. Following this pre-treatment, NaOH was added and mixed for another 10 min. Despite employing a different approach and a shorter reaction time with NaOH, the percentage of PET degraded and TPA recovered with Thy/Phe (1:2) was notably higher than that of other DESs. The high reactivity of the Thy/Phe (1:2) offers a distinct advantage, enabling reactions to proceed efficiently at lower temperatures and shorter reaction times.
The second DES tested, TBABr/Sulf (1:7), had a lower negative ln(y) value, close to 0. This DES was able to degrade 68% of commercial PET and 93.7% of post-consumer PET, with TPA recovery yields of 86.6% and 94.1%, respectively. Lastly, our reference DES, ChCl/mCre (1:2), exhibited a positive ln(y). Theoretically a positive ln(y) value is indicative of low capacity for dissolution of compounds in this study pertaining to PET. As predicted, this DES could not degrade commercial-grade PET pellets and reached only 45.4% degradation and 25.9% TPA recovery when using post-consumer samples. The reaction predominantly produced intermediate products, indicating that while some PET was degraded, the process did not yield recoverable TPA. Similar to Thy/Phe (1:2), ChCl/mCre(1:2) DES also turned brown over time. The functionality of ChCl/mCre (1:2) can be altered by using higher reaction temperatures, longer reaction times, smaller PET particle sizes, assisted techniques, or a higher solvent-to-PET ratio to be more effective. Although COSMO-RS is a reliable pre-screening tool, it is important to note that its predictions at the molecular level may not fully account for potential side reactions that could impact the PET degradation. Therefore, further experimental investigation is required to confirm the compatibility of all chemicals involved and their effectiveness in this process.
Beyond conversion and recovery, the sustainability of the process under the proposed conditions must be considered. This process operates at T = 130 °C and ambient pressure, with reaction times of 40 min which are comparable to or lower than those reported for conventional alkaline hydrolysis and several other chemical recycling routes [39,60]. These milder conditions are expected to reduce overall thermal energy demand relative to processes that require higher temperatures or longer residence times.
The main contributors to environmental burden in this system are the electricity used and the consumption of solvent. This study presents a significant reduction in material use compared to standard practices. The consumed catalyst (NaOH) loading was decreased to 5 wt%, which is substantially lower than the typical 10–20 wt% employed [24,61] and the PET-to-DES ratio was minimized to 0.15. Furthermore, the use of non-volatile DESs [62] at atmospheric pressure mitigates the risks of solvent emissions and safety hazards associated with high-pressure operation or volatile organic solvents.
Compared with processes that rely on organic solvents or high-pressure operation, the use of DES-based media at atmospheric pressure reduces risks associated with solvent loss, owing to their negligible vapour pressure. While a full life-cycle assessment is beyond the scope of this study, the operating window demonstrated here indicates that the process is potentially competitive with established PET recycling routes.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Geometry Optimization and COSMO-RS Computation

The computational workflow for the COSMO-RS simulations involved several stages. Firstly, the molecular structures for all the DES constituent compounds and PET were constructed in Tmolex (version 4.0.1, COSMOlogic GmbH & Co. KG, Leverkusen, Germany) molecular builder. Each structure was then subjected to geometry optimization at the ground state using the DFT method with a B3LYP (Becke 3-parameter hybrid functional combined with the Lee–Yang–Parr correlation) paired with def2-TZVP basis set. Subsequently, single-point COSMO calculations were initiated using BP86/TZVP functional and basis set [37]. The resulting COSMO files were imported into COSMOthermX (version 19.0.4 COSMOlogic GmbH & Co. KG, Leverkusen, Germany) to obtain σ-profiles, σ-potentials, and the logarithmic activity coefficients (ln(γ)) of the binary mixtures.
For COSMO-RS computation, each DES component was modelled as electroneutral where they are treated as a distinct species. Due to their large structural complexity, the optimization of polymer components is both computationally demanding and time intensive. In fact, in conventional computation, the COSMO-RS model handles the entire molecule as a single entity. However, for larger compounds like polymers, it becomes necessary to break down the structure into selected fragments. This means that the end group of polymers are deactivated using a weight string function. This function can selectively activate or deactivate specific atoms within the “.cosmo” file [63]. This method has been used in several studies employing COSMO-RS to investigate polymer compounds in their fragmented forms, such as dimers or trimers [64,65], and is considered reliable for preliminary screening purposes. For example, a PET dimer is formed by linking two TPA molecules via an ester bond between the carboxyl group of each TPA molecule and the hydroxyl group of an EG molecule. Figure 7 below illustrates the PET structure prepared for COSMO-RS computation, where the weight string (depicted in black) is set to 0.

4.2. DES Screening Using COSMO-RS

To assess the performance of the 40 DESs listed in Table 1, the logarithmic activity coefficient (log(γ)) of the target solute was computed. The calculation of logarithmic activity coefficient of a mixture can be predicted by using the following equation:
ln γ i = μ i − μ i ο R T
where μi is the chemical potential, μi0 is the chemical potential of the pure component i, R is the real gas contact, and T is the absolute temperature [66].

4.3. Chemicals and Materials Used in This Work

PET granules were purchased from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). For the assessment using post-consumer samples, PET plastic bottles were collected from department recycling bins. The bottles were thoroughly washed, labels were removed, and they were dried before being cut into flakes of approximately 1 cm × 1 cm in size.
The components of DESs including choline chloride (98%), m-cresol (99%), tetra butylammonium bromide (99%), sulfolane (99%), thymol (98.5%), phenol (99%), and p-toluene sulfonic acid monohydrate (98%) were all purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). The chemicals used for hydrolysis and precipitation to TPA including sodium hydroxide (98%) and hydrochloric acid (37%) were purchased, respectively, from Chemiz (Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia) and RM Chemicals (Mississauga, ON, Canada). Finally, for the characterization of recycled TPA, pure terephthalic acid (99%) used for comparison was purchased from Chemiz (Malaysia). All these chemicals were of analytical grade and have been used without any purification.

4.4. Experimental Protocol

4.4.1. Synthesis of DES

The DESs chosen for experimental validation, identified through COSMO-RS screening, are listed in Table 2 (Section 2.2). Each DES was prepared by combining the corresponding HBA and HBD in the specified molar ratio. The mixture was then homogenized by magnetic stirring at 80 °C until a clear, uniform liquid phase was observed. All synthesized DESs were stored at room temperature in a dry environment and used within one week.

4.4.2. Depolymerization Experiment

Hydrolysis reactions were carried out at 130 °C ± 5 °C for 40 min in a 50 mL flask equipped with magnetic stirrer. A total of 600 mg of PET were used directly without any further size reduction and mixed with 8 g of DES/aqueous NaOH solution at a 1:1 weight ratio, resulting in a total NaOH concentration of 5 wt%.
Upon completion, the mixture was quenched with cold water to halt the hydrolysis reaction. Next, 20 mL of distilled water was added to the mixture to precipitate any unreacted PET and PET oligomers, which were then removed from the solution via vacuum filtration. The resulting liquid contained an aqueous solution of the used DES, disodium terephthalate, and EG. PET weight loss was calculated using the following equation:
P E T   w e i g h t   l o s s   ( % ) = W 1 − W 2 W 1 ×   100 %
where W1 and W2 represent the weight of PET before and after the reaction, respectively.
TPA was precipitated by acidifying the filtrate with 2 mL of 37% hydrochloric acid (HCl). The recovered white TPA powder was washed few times with distilled water and dried overnight at 60 °C. The TPA yield was calculated using Equation (3).
T P A   y i e l d = W T P A W 1 − W 2 × 100 %
where WTPA is the weight obtained after precipitation using HCl. The recycled TPA samples were compared to commercial TPA (Chemiz, purity > 99%) used as a standard.

5. Conclusions

In support of advancing plastic circularity, this study explored the use of DESs as promising catalytic media for the hydrolysis of PET. First, the correlation between computational predictions, performed by the COSMO-RS model, and experimental validation have confirmed its efficacy for a preliminary solvent screening. However, the validation was limited in this study to a qualitative ranking, and deeper analysis is required to ensure that the selected solvents are compatible with other media, such as NaOH. In terms of quantitative results, Thy/Phe (1:2) DES exhibited exceptional PET dissolution capacity and recovery of its constituent monomers. The high reactivity of this DES enables hydrolysis to be conducted under significantly milder conditions. On the other hand, TBABr/Sulf (1:7) DES showed promising results, with a PET breakdown of 68% with pure PET granules and 93.7% with post-consumer PET. The corresponding TPA recovery yields were 86.6% and 94.1%, respectively. The characterization of the recycled TPA from both DESs revealed a purity comparable to virgin-grade PET (Chemiz > 99%), as validated by FT−IR analysis. By contrast, the reference DES, ChCl/mCre (1:2), achieved only 3.3% degradation with commercial PET and 45.4% with post-consumer samples, with minimal TPA recovery. The solvolysis performance aligns with theoretical predictions, as this type of DES is not expected to effectively dissolve PET. Overall, this work validates COSMO-RS as a reliable pre-screening tool for identifying effective DESs for PET depolymerization. The combined computational–experimental framework presented here provides a cost- and time-efficient pathway to accelerate solvent discovery with potential to advance scalable, sustainable solutions for industrial PET recycling.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing—original draft, visualization, N.A.F.; data curation, validation, writing—review and editing, supervision, methodology, project administration, M.Z.M.S.; Supervision, project administration, funding acquisition, N.Y.Y.; writing—review and editing, methodology, validation, Y.S.D.; writing—review and editing, resources, validation, visualization, funding acquisition, M.K.H.-K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia through the grant provided under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS), i.e., FRGS/1/2023/TK05/UKM/02/5. This research is also supported by the Ongoing Research Funding program (ORF-2025–361), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge Mood Mohan for his insightful technical guidance on this work.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following list contains abbreviations used throughout the manuscript that are not defined in the main text.
FeCl3.6H2OFerric chloride hexahydrate
P-TSAP-toluenesulfonic acid
AAAcetic acid
MSAmethanesulfonic acid
[Bmim][Cl]1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride
[HSO3-pmim][HSO4]1-methyl-3-(3-sulfopropyl)-imidazolium hydrogen sulfate

Appendix A

Appendix A.1

The FT−IR spectrum of the original post-consumer PET bottle feedstock is presented in Figure A1. This spectrum was included to provide a baseline for comparison with the recycled products and to address the potential influence of the starting material’s properties.
Catalysts 15 01154 g0a1
Figure A1. 1FT−IR spectra of recycled PET bottle.
Figure A1. 1FT−IR spectra of recycled PET bottle.
Catalysts 15 01154 g0a1

Appendix A.2

The 13C NMR and 1H spectra of the pure and recovered TPA, dissolved in DMSO, are presented in Figure A2 and Figure A3, respectively. The 1H NMR spectrum exhibited a single sharp signal at δ = 8.0253 ppm, corresponding to the equivalent aromatic protons of TPA. In the 13C NMR spectrum, three distinct signals were observed at δ = 167.18, 134.88, and 129.9 ppm, which are characteristic of the carboxyl carbons (C=O) and aromatic ring carbons of TPA, respectively. These findings are in good agreement with previously reported NMR data for pure TPA [24], confirming the successful formation of the desired product. Notably, the spectra displayed no significant impurities, as other detectable peaks were of negligible intensity.
Catalysts 15 01154 g0a2
Figure A2. 13C NMR spectra of pure TPA (top) and recycled TPA (bottom).
Figure A2. 13C NMR spectra of pure TPA (top) and recycled TPA (bottom).
Catalysts 15 01154 g0a2
Catalysts 15 01154 g0a3
Figure A3. 1H NMR spectra of pure TPA (top) and recycled TPA (bottom).
Figure A3. 1H NMR spectra of pure TPA (top) and recycled TPA (bottom).
Catalysts 15 01154 g0a3

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Catalysts 15 01154 g001
Figure 1. Value of logarithmic activity of PET in DES.
Figure 1. Value of logarithmic activity of PET in DES.
Catalysts 15 01154 g001
Catalysts 15 01154 g002
Figure 2. σ-profile for top five DESs based on ln (y).
Figure 2. σ-profile for top five DESs based on ln (y).
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Catalysts 15 01154 g003
Figure 3. σ-potential plot for top five DESs based on ln (y).
Figure 3. σ-potential plot for top five DESs based on ln (y).
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Catalysts 15 01154 g004aCatalysts 15 01154 g004b
Figure 4. Individual component contributions to the excess enthalpy of mixing for (a) Thy/Phe (1:2) (b) Thy/PTSA-M (1:1), (c) Thy/AA (1:1), and (d) TBABr/Sulf (1:7) DES systems with PET.
Figure 4. Individual component contributions to the excess enthalpy of mixing for (a) Thy/Phe (1:2) (b) Thy/PTSA-M (1:1), (c) Thy/AA (1:1), and (d) TBABr/Sulf (1:7) DES systems with PET.
Catalysts 15 01154 g004aCatalysts 15 01154 g004b
Catalysts 15 01154 g005
Figure 5. FT−IR spectra of recycled TPA using commercial pellets (upper), recycled TPA using post-consumer samples (middle), and virgin grade TPA (lower) obtained from depolymerization using Thy/Phe (1:2).
Figure 5. FT−IR spectra of recycled TPA using commercial pellets (upper), recycled TPA using post-consumer samples (middle), and virgin grade TPA (lower) obtained from depolymerization using Thy/Phe (1:2).
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Catalysts 15 01154 g006
Figure 6. FT−IR spectra of recycled TPA using commercial pellets (upper), recycled TPA using post-consumer samples (middle), and virgin grade TPA (lower) obtained from depolymerization using TBABr/Sulf (1:7).
Figure 6. FT−IR spectra of recycled TPA using commercial pellets (upper), recycled TPA using post-consumer samples (middle), and virgin grade TPA (lower) obtained from depolymerization using TBABr/Sulf (1:7).
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Figure 7. PET structure with deactivated end group.
Figure 7. PET structure with deactivated end group.
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Table 1. List of DESs screened in this study.
Table 1. List of DESs screened in this study.
No.HBAHBDRatioAbbreviationsRef.
HBAHBD
1Choline chlorideZinc acetate11ChCl/ZnAc(1:1)[38]
2Choline chlorideM-cresol12ChCl/mCre (1:2)[39]
3Choline chlorideP-chlorophenol12ChCl/pCPh (1:2)[40]
4Choline chloridePhenol13ChCl/Ph (1:3)[41]
5Choline chlorideO-cresol13ChCl/oCre (1:3)[42]
6Choline chlorideUrea12ChCl/Ur (1:2)[39]
7Choline chlorideGlycerol12ChCL/Gly (1:2)[41]
8Choline chlorideMalonic acid11ChCl/MA (1:1)[41]
9Choline chlorideP-toluenesulfonic acid
monohydrate		11ChCl/PTSA-M(1:1)[43]
10Choline chlorideMethanesulfonic acid
monohydrate		11ChCl/MSA-M (1:1)**
11Zinc chlorideUrea14ZnCl/Ur (1:4)[39]
12Zinc chlorideHexanediol13ZnCl/Hex (1:3)[3]
13Methyltriphenylphosphonium bromideTriethylene glycol14MTPPBr/TEG (1:4)[44]
14Methyltriphenylphosphonium bromideEthylene glycol13MTPPBr/EG (1:3)[44]
15Methyltriphenylphosphonium bromide1,2- propanediol14MTPPBr/Prop (1:4)**
16Tetrabutylammonium bromideSulfolane17TBABr/Sulf (1:7)[3]
17Tetrabutylammonium chlorideAcetic acid12TBACl/AA (1:2)[44]
18Tetrabutylammonium chlorideDecanoic acid12TBACl/DecA (1:2)[45]
19Benzyltriphenylphosphonium bromideGlycerol15BTPPBr/Gly (1:5)[46]
20Benzyltriphenylphosphonium bromideEthylene glycol13BTPPBr/EG (1:3)[46]
21MentholAcetic acid11Me/AA (1:1)[47]
22MentholLauric acid11Me/LA (1:1)[47]
23MentholLidocaine21Men/Lic (2:1)[48]
24MentholDimethoxyphenol21Men/DMP (2:1)[49]
251-tetradecanolMenthol12TDec/Men (1:1)[48]
26ThymolMenthol11Thy/Men (1:1)[48]
27Butylated hydroxytolueneMenthol13BHT/LMe[50]
28Decanoic acidMenthol12DecA/Men (1:2)[48]
291-naptholMenthol12Nap/Men (1:2)[48]
30MentholP-toluenesulfonic acid
monohydrate		11Men/PTSA-M(1:1)**
31ThymolCoumarin11Thy/Cou (1:1)[48]
32CamphorThymol11Cam/Thy (1:1)[51]
33ThymolPhenol12Thy/Phe (1:2)**
34ThymolAcetic Acid11Thy/AA (1:1)**
35ThymolP-toluenesulfonic acid
monohydrate		11Thy/PTSA-M (1:1)**
36Potassium carbonateEthylene glycol16PC/EG (1:6)[39]
37N,N,N-trimethylglycine/BetainePhenyl acetic acid12Bet/PAA (1:2)[52]
381,2-decanediolThymol121,2 Dec/Thy (1:2)[48]
39Decanoic acidPhenol21DecA/Phe (2:1)**
40Decanoic acidLidocaine21DecA/Lic (2:1)[48]
All listed DESs are from previous studies, unless otherwise noted. Hypothetical DESs are indicated by double asterisk (**).
Table 2. DESs chosen for catalytic depolymerization of PET.
Table 2. DESs chosen for catalytic depolymerization of PET.
ComponentsMolar RatioAbbreviationStability
Thymol:phenol1:2Thy/Phe (1:2)Homogeneous
Thymol:p-toluenesulfonic acid monohydrate1:2Thy/PTSA-M (1:1)Unstable
Thymol:acetic acid1:1Thy/AA (1:1)Unstable
Tetrabutylammonium bromide:sulfolane1:7TBABr/Sulf (1:7)Homogeneous
Choline chloride:m-cresol (Ref)1:2ChCl/mCre (1:2)Homogeneous
Table 3. Commercial PET granules dissolution in DES after 60 min at T = 130 °C.
Table 3. Commercial PET granules dissolution in DES after 60 min at T = 130 °C.
DES Initial Weight (g) Final Weight (g) Solubility (%)
Thy/Phe (1:2)0.610100
TBABr/Sulf (1:7)0.600100
ChCl/mCre (1:2)0.610.61~0
Table 4. PET weight loss (%) and TPA yield (%) for catalyzed hydrolysis using DES/ILs via conventional heating.
Table 4. PET weight loss (%) and TPA yield (%) for catalyzed hydrolysis using DES/ILs via conventional heating.
Catalyst/Solvent, DES or ILHydrolysis ConditionsPET Conversion (%)TPA Yield (%)Ref
FeCl3∙6H2O/P-TSAT = 100 °C
t = 60 min		98.088.6[32]
FeCl3∙6H2O/AAT = 120 °C
t = 180 min		10099.7[32]
FeCl3∙6H2O/MSAT = 100 °C
t = 30 min		10061.0[32]
[Bmim][Cl] and [HSO3-mim][HSO4]T = 170 °C
t = 240 min		10088.0[29]
Thy/Phe (1:2)T = 130 °C
t = 25 min		100 (commercial)
100 (post-consumer)		86.0
94.5		This work
TBABr/Sulf (1:7)T = 130 °C
t = 40 min		68.0 (commercial)
93.8 (post-consumer) 		86.6
94.1		This work
ChCl/mCre (1:2)T = 130 °C
t = 40 min		3.3 (commercial)
45.4 (post-consumer)		Non-quantitative
25.9		This work
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Abdul Fattah, N.; Mat Salleh, M.Z.; Yuhana, N.Y.; Dambatta, Y.S.; Hadj-Kali, M.K. Polyethylene Terephthalate Hydrolysis Catalyzed by Deep Eutectic Solvents: COSMO-RS Screening and Experimental Validation. Catalysts 2025, 15, 1154. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121154

AMA Style

Abdul Fattah N, Mat Salleh MZ, Yuhana NY, Dambatta YS, Hadj-Kali MK. Polyethylene Terephthalate Hydrolysis Catalyzed by Deep Eutectic Solvents: COSMO-RS Screening and Experimental Validation. Catalysts. 2025; 15(12):1154. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121154

Chicago/Turabian Style

Abdul Fattah, Nurasyqin, Muhammad Zulhaziman Mat Salleh, Nor Yuliana Yuhana, Yusuf Suleiman Dambatta, and Mohamed Kamel Hadj-Kali. 2025. "Polyethylene Terephthalate Hydrolysis Catalyzed by Deep Eutectic Solvents: COSMO-RS Screening and Experimental Validation" Catalysts 15, no. 12: 1154. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121154

APA Style

Abdul Fattah, N., Mat Salleh, M. Z., Yuhana, N. Y., Dambatta, Y. S., & Hadj-Kali, M. K. (2025). Polyethylene Terephthalate Hydrolysis Catalyzed by Deep Eutectic Solvents: COSMO-RS Screening and Experimental Validation. Catalysts, 15(12), 1154. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121154

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