Next Article in Journal
Green Synthesis and Molecular Docking Study of Some New Thiazoles Using Terephthalohydrazide Chitosan Hydrogel as Ecofriendly Biopolymeric Catalyst
Next Article in Special Issue
In Situ Preparation of 0D/2D Zn-Ag-In-S Quantum Dots/RGO Heterojunctions for Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production
Previous Article in Journal
Highly Efficient and Selective Oxidation of Benzyl Alcohol by WO42− Catalyst Immobilized by a Phosphonium-Containing Porous Aromatic Framework
Previous Article in Special Issue
Synthesis of g-C3N4@ZnIn2S4 Heterostructures with Extremely High Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production and Reusability
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Catalysts
Volume 13
Issue 9
10.3390/catal13091310
catalysts-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Photocatalysis: A Possible Vital Contributor to the Evolution of the Prebiotic Atmosphere and the Warming of the Early Earth

by
Chuchu Cheng
†,
Fangjie Xu
†,
Wenwen Shi
,
Qiaoyun Wang
and
Caijin Huang
*
State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Catalysts 2023, 13(9), 1310; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13091310
Submission received: 14 August 2023 / Revised: 17 September 2023 / Accepted: 18 September 2023 / Published: 20 September 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction Based on ZnIn2S4 Materials)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The evolution of the early atmosphere was driven by changes in its chemical composition, which involved the formation of some critical gases. In this study, we demonstrate that nitrous oxide (N2O) can be produced from Miller’s early atmosphere (a mixture of CH4, NH3, H2, and H2O) by way of photocatalysis. Both NH3 and H2O were indispensable for the production of N2O by photocatalysis. Different conditions related to seawater and reaction temperature are also explored. N2O has a strong greenhouse gas effect, which is more able to warm the Earth than other gases and offers a reasonable explanation for the faint young Sun paradox on the early Earth. Moreover, the decomposition of N2O into N2 and O2 can be boosted by soft irradiation, providing a possible and important origin of atmospheric O2 and N2. The occurrence of O2 propelled the evolution of the atmosphere from being fundamentally reducing to oxidizing. This work describes a possible vital contribution of photocatalysis to the evolution of the early atmosphere.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

The Earth experienced a fainter Sun in its early stages. In the ancient Archean eon, the early Earth received only 76–83% of the energy from the Sun that it does today [1]. As a consequence, the Earth would have become covered with ice if the greenhouse effect and surface albedo were the same as in the present. However, geological evidence has uncovered the presence of liquid H2O on the early Earth’s surface, and the Archean may have been warmer than today, as we are currently in a period of glaciation [2,3]. This is known as “the faint young Sun paradox” [4,5]. To date, many hypotheses have been proposed to resolve this paradox, but there is still no clear conclusion at present.
The chemical composition change of the Earth’s early atmosphere played a vital role in the atmospheric evolution, climate change, and the evolution of the early Earth to the modern Earth suited for life. For instance, a high concentration of greenhouse gases (CH4 and CO2) has been suggested to help to resolve “the faint young Sun paradox”. However, geological evidence has demonstrated that the concentration of these two greenhouse gases in the early atmosphere could not have been high enough to satisfy this paradox [6]. Alternatively, Airapetian et al. proposed that the energetic particles from an active young Sun penetrated the atmosphere and converted N2, CH4, and CO2 to N2O and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) [7]. It has been found that the greenhouse effect of N2O (298 GWP) is much stronger than those of CH4 (82.5 GWP) and CO2 (1 GWP) [8,9], which means that N2O has a much stronger greenhouse effect, and has more potential to have warmed the early Earth. Moreover, Nna-Mvondo et al. found that oxynitride (NO and N2O) can be produced in a mimetic Hadean and Archean atmosphere (CO2-N2 mixture) by lightning and coronal discharge [10]. Nevertheless, low oxynitride yield by this means and light-induced decomposition would have limited N2O accumulation on the early Earth. Therefore, there is possibly an overlooked process for the stable and abiotic mass production of N2O, which may be key to explaining “the faint young Sun paradox”.
In addition to the Earth’s early temperature, the origin of O2 is another mystery of the evolution of the atmosphere. It has been proven that the O2 level of the early Earth changed substantially over geological time [11]. For example, molybdenum isotopes found in the rocks of South Africa indicate the possible emergence of substantial free O2 in shallow marine environments approximately 3 Gyr [12]. Some models have demonstrated that “O2 oases” may have been created before the Great Oxidation Event (GOE) [13,14]. The origins and rise of atmospheric O2 on the early Earth have aroused wide interest. O2-producing cyanobacteria or other green non-sulfur bacteria are considered to have promoted the evolution of the early Earth’s atmosphere to an O2-rich atmosphere [15]. The recent results of CO2 photodissociation experiments may have implications for non-biological O2 production in a CO2-heavy atmosphere [16,17]. Since N2O can be decomposed into O2 and N2 through thermocatalysis or under soft irradiation [18,19], atmospheric O2 could be related to the level of N2O if the large-scale generation of N2O was possible on the early Earth. Moreover, some studies have also reported the decomposition of N2O into O2 and N2 from the perspective of photodissociation dynamics [20,21].
Different sources of energy, such as ultraviolet light, electrical discharges, radioactivity, and volcanoes, have been examined in many experimental studies on prebiotic chemistry [22]. Among these energy sources, solar energy is the most powerful and continuous source of energy. Photocatalysis can use abundant solar energy to achieve solar-to-chemical energy conversion, and has attracted widespread research interest in recent decades [23,24,25]. Additionally, the radiation level on the early Earth was several orders of magnitude higher in the short wavelength range than the current level at the Earth’s surface [26,27]. It could be assumed that semiconductor minerals turned the surface of the early Earth into a photoreactor under the conditions of high ultraviolet irradiation and the early Earth’s thin atmosphere [28]. Interestingly, Harald et al. obtained a mixture of amino acids from an NH3 solution with CH4 over a Pt/TiO2 photocatalyst under irradiation from an Xe lamp [29]. Although great efforts have been made to account for the evolution of the early Earth and the origin of O2, few hypotheses have focused on the contribution of photocatalysis which may have played an important role in these processes [30,31].
In this work, we present a feasible photocatalytic way to efficiently produce N2O from a mimicked early reducing atmosphere using natural semiconductor materials (i.e., TiO2) under light irradiation. TiO2, one of the most widely used and chemically stable photocatalysts, is abundant on Earth, as well as on other planets such as Mars [32]. Herein, we used TiO2 for the photocatalytic conversion of the mimicked early reducing atmosphere (CH4, H2, H2O, and NH3) applied in Miller’s experiments. The photocatalytic oxidation of NH3 to N2O may be a feasible and important way to understand the chemical evolution of the early Earth. Since N2O has a strong greenhouse effect, the steady generation of N2O could have caused a warm early Earth, and the decomposition of N2O by solar light may have produced abiogenic O2 for the early Earth. Furthermore, we attempt here to explain the two primary enigmas (the faint young Sun paradox and the origin of atmospheric O2) of the early Earth.

2. Results and Discussion

2.1. The Faint Young Sun Paradox

A mixture of gases (CH4, H2, H2O, and NH3), similar to that used in Miller’s experiment, was employed to mimic the early reducing atmosphere. Among these gases, NH3 is considered a probable part of the composition of the early atmosphere [33,34,35], which may come from the degasification of the Earth or have been generated from nitrate through denitrification [34,36,37]. It has been noted that the ammonium concentration of Paleoarchean metasedimentary biotite grains reached up to several hundred ppm [38], which raises the possibility of a NH3-rich atmosphere on the early Earth. Nitrogen isotope ratios have offered evidence for the existence of the oldest known alkaline lake system which may have provided alkaline conditions for the volatilization of NH3 gas [39]. Therefore, NH3 may have been a sufficient reactant for the production of N2O on the early Earth.
Solar light is continuous and had high ultraviolet irradiance on the early Earth, which allows it to meet the needs of photocatalytic reactions [27,40]. If N2O can be effectively produced from the primitive atmosphere (including NH3 and H2O) with inexhaustible solar energy, a possible explanation could be offered to address the faint young Sun paradox. N2O is generally considered to primarily enter the atmosphere as a byproduct of biological nitrification and denitrification [33,41]; oceanic O2 restricted the concentration of N2O on the early Earth [42] because N2O is rapidly photodissociated at lower atmospheric O2 levels. In this work, we present experimental evidence that N2O can be generated from and accumulated in a mimicked early reducing and anoxic atmosphere (NH3, H2O) via photocatalysis. Thus, the concentration of N2O need not be dependent on O2 levels or biological enzymes.
For the simplification and reliability of the reaction system, commercial TiO2 powder was chosen instead of natural semiconducting minerals due to the lower symmetries and additional complexities of the latter. The commercial TiO2 powder was evaluated using X-ray diffraction (XRD), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), diffusion reflectance spectroscopy (DRS), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) (Figures S1 and S2). The crystal phase of the applied TiO2 was anatase, and its average particle size was approximately 5 nm. Our experiment was performed in an airtight silica tube (Figure 1) containing mixed gases, water, and photocatalyst. The mixed gases mimic the primitive atmosphere (CH4, H2, and NH3), as used in Miller’s experiments [43], and the aqueous solution represents the primitive ocean. The gas composition was monitored using a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR) through the CaF2 window. After 5 days of photocatalytic reaction, obvious double peaks were observed at around 2238 and 2213 cm−1, corresponding to N2O [44] (Figure 2a). The generation of N2O indicated that both NH3 and H2O were indispensable for the reaction; thus, we used NH3 and H2O as reactants in the subsequent experiments. As expected, N2O was can be also produced (Figure 2b), and the amount of N2O gradually increased day by day via photocatalytic reaction (Figure 3a) with the photocatalyst and light illumination. In this reaction, NH3 is oxidized to N2O and water is reduced to H2 (2NH3 + H2O → N2O + 4H2). The amount of H2 is shown in Figure S3. Additionally, we detected the concentration of NO3− and NO2− in the liquid phase (Figure S4) and no obvious signal was observed, which indicates N2O is the single oxidative product of NH3. Meanwhile, even when the reaction temperature was adjusted to 3 °C, the formation of N2O still proceeded (Figure 2c) (note that negative double peaks around 2348 cm−1 are attributed to the fluctuation of CO2 concentration in the air (outside the reaction tube), which did not influence the reaction). Furthermore, we also investigated simulated present-day seawater (0.462 M NaCl, 1.3 mM MgSO4, 0.04 M MgCl2, and 6.8 mM MgBr2) instead of pure water for photocatalytic N2O production. After 7 days of irradiation, obvious double peaks were observed at around 2238 and 2213 cm−1, corresponding to N2O (Figure 2d) with no new peaks observed. Moreover, the amount of N2O evolution was further detected using gas chromatography [45] (Figure 3b). The highest evolution rate of N2O was measured at approximately 20 µmol per day. For comparison, in the absence of a catalyst or light irradiation, the target product (N2O) was nearly undetectable in the control experiments (Figure 4).
Owing to the limited gas tightness and vacuum degree of the experimental apparatus, the effect of ambient O2 could not be entirely excluded in our experiments. To verify that the oxygen atoms in N2O originated from H2O, 18O-labeled H2O was added into the reaction system. Table 1 shows the ratios of 18O in 18O-labeled H2O and N2O. The 18O content of the generated N2O reached 0.405 atom%, which was apparently higher than the natural abundance (0.2 atom%). This proves the feasible transfer of oxygen atom from H2O to N2O, and approximately 16% of the N2O in our system was from the reduction of H2O due to the competition of ambient O2.
To estimate N2O production by photocatalysis on the early Earth, we assumed that the irradiated surface area was equal to the internal cross-section of the tube (8 cm2); therefore, the reaction rate on the irradiated surface area was 25 mmol/m2/day. Given that the land area of the early Earth was similar to that of the modern Earth (149 million square kilometers) and that the proportion of TiO2 area was approximately 1% according to the geochemical data of the modern Earth and terrestrial planets [46,47], the rate of production of N2O by photoreduction was approximately 4 × 1011 g yr−1 (grams per year), which was much larger than that predicted using the discharge method (9 × 107 g yr−1) [10]. Additionally, we also carried out a gas–solid photocatalytic reaction experiment in which TiO2 powder was deposited on a glass substrate placed above the surface of the water. The reaction rate on the irradiated surface area was 10 mmol/m2/day (Figure 5) and the corresponding estimated production of N2O was, thus, approximately 2 × 1011 g yr−1, which is a potential origin of greenhouse gas able to offset reduced insolation in the early Earth and maintain a warm climate. Additionally, since N2O has a stronger greenhouse effect than CH4 or CO2 [48], a lower N2O concentration would have been needed to warm the early Earth. Crucially, the removal of N2O from the atmosphere is much lower than that of CH4, given that the steady-state lifetime of N2O is approximately 120 years. Less than 1% of atmospheric N2O is removed annually from the atmosphere, primarily by photolysis and oxidative reactions in the stratosphere [48]. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that over geological time, with abundant energy sources and sufficient reactant, atmospheric N2O may have created an insulating layer for the Earth, which may have helped to maintain liquid H2O on the early Earth and stopped cosmic rays from reaching the Earth at the same time.

2.2. The Possible Origin of Atmospheric O2

Molecular oxygen has played an indispensable role in transforming our planetary environment. Its presence in the atmosphere and oceans has also induced planetary-scale interactions between the biosphere and the environment, leading to the Earth’s system having crossed irreversible thresholds to reach its modern state. Rare earth element analyses of limestones and deep-water iron-rich sediments have shown that shallow water was oxygenated, whereas the adjacent deeper waters were not [14,49]. Regardless of the arguments raised by some studies that UV radiation would limit the expansion of cyanobacteria [50], the possible existence of “Archean cyanobacteria” could account for the oxygenation of shallow water [13,51,52]. The record of redox-sensitive trace-metals and C and S contents in black shales indicates that ocean ventilation on a global scale was delayed until later in the Cambrian with regard to rising oxygen levels in the atmosphere [53]. Notably, N2O can be decomposed under solar light into O2 and N2 through thermocatalysis and photocatalysis [18,19,54], which may be an important origin of non-biological O2 on the early Earth. Moreover, the photocatalytic generation and photodecomposition of N2O can increase the O2 level in shallow water but not in deep water, as deep water’s lack of solar light cannot satisfy the conditions of photocatalytic reaction. This hypothesis posits that an increase in the oxygen content of shallow water was physiologically necessary for the emergence of large, highly energetic animals [55]. Although these findings are only preliminary, they still add evidence for the existence of N2O and O2.
Furthermore, it has been widely reported that the decomposition of N2O gas to N2 and O2 can be induced by light. To our delight, previous studies have revealed the isotope fractionation of nitrogen atoms in the upper atmosphere and ascribed it to the ultraviolet (UV) photodissociation dynamics of N2O. N2O also has a broad absorption band that peaks at 182 nm, which means that it can absorb UV; the window of solar radiation occurs in the red wing of this band [56,57]. Moreover, the Gibbs free energy change (ΔG) of the decomposition of N2O is −100 KJ, which means this reaction can react spontaneously. Based on these theories, we explored the decomposition of N2O under solar light with TiO2. To explore the significance of light and catalysis, we also removed TiO2 and light during photocatalytic N2O decomposition. Owing to the limited gas tightness and vacuum degree of the experiment apparatus, the effect of the surrounding O2 could not be entirely rejected, so we only detected the concentrations of N2O and N2. Furthermore, before irradiation, we maintained the pressure of the tube at 1 bar to minimize gas exchange with the air outside the tube. As briefly shown in Figure 6a, the concentration of N2O gradually decreased with the extension of illumination time, whereas the corresponding N2 showed positive growth. To determine the effects of the photocatalyst and light, we carried out the N2O decomposition experiment with the participation of TiO2. As exhibited in Figure 6b, N2O was smoothly decomposed into N2 and O2 with light, even without the assistance of TiO2. However, it was difficult for N2O to decompose in the dark because of the inhibitive high reaction energy of N2O. Instead, the reaction energy decreased dramatically, contributing to the decomposition of N2O in the presence of photoexcited or excess electrons on the TiO2 surface. Simultaneously, we found that the evolution rate of N2O with TiO2 and light became slower after approximately 10 h of irradiation (Figure 3b and Figure 5b). This indicates that the N2O began to decompose when the concentration of N2O reached a certain value, which is in agreement with our assumption of the decomposition of N2O into O2 and N2.
The physical and chemical properties of the reactants and photocatalyst can support our proposed model of nitrogen cycling. Firstly, ammonia in liquid water profoundly depresses the freezing point of the mixture. Some studies have also shown evidence of liquid water temperatures at the Earth’s surface using the dating of sedimentary rocks which were laid down under water [52,58]. These conditions described by these theories could provide sufficient reactants (H2O and NH3) for the photocatalytic production of N2O. Meanwhile, UV radiation would also provide a limitless energy source for the photocatalytic reaction without destroying the photocatalyst. Crucially, it is worth noting that throughout the production of N2O, even after 30 h irradiation, the TiO2 still exhibited perfect photocatalytic activity. Moreover, TiO2 is considered a natural semiconductor material that is abundant on Earth, as well as on other planets such as Mars. Therefore, a perfect correlation between the early atmosphere and the possible origin of O2 can be formed (Figure 7). The sun, along with TiO2, could provide continuous conditions for the early atmosphere to produce N2O and, simultaneously, to decompose N2O into N2 and O2. Accordingly, based on the current evidence outlined above, we conjecture the possible origin of O2 from the decomposition of N2O, which could be an important step for the chemical evolution of the early atmosphere to the modern atmosphere.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Chemicals

Titanium dioxide (TiO2, anatase), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), magnesium chloride (MgCl2), and magnesium bromide (MgBr2) were obtained from Aladin (Shanghai, China). Sodium chloride (NaCl) was supplied by Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China). All chemical reagents used in this work were of analytical grade and used as received without further purification or treatment. Pure (99.99%) reaction gases (NH3, CH4, N2O, and H2) were purchased from Xinghang Gas Co., Ltd. (Fuzhou, China). (and used under the control of flowmeters.

3.2. Characterization

The composition of the gas-phase mixture in the cell was monitored using a Thermo Scientific Nicolet IS50 FT-IR spectrometer (Waltham, MA, USA) equipped with a KBr beam splitter and a DTGS/KBr detector. For each spectrum, 64 scans were accumulated and measured with a resolution of 0.02 cm−1 at a range of 1100 to 4000 cm−1. X-ray diffraction data of TiO2 powder were collected using a Bruker D8 advance X-ray diffractometer (Billerica, MA, USA) (Cu Kα1 irradiation, λ = 1.5406 Å). UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectra were obtained using a Varian Cary 500 UV-Vis-NIR spectrometer with BaSO4 as a reflectance standard (Palo Alto, CA, USA). The morphology of the samples was obtained using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (JSM-6700F, Tokyo Akishima, Japan) and a TECNAI F30 transmission electron microscope (TEM, Hillsboro, OR, USA). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis of TiO2 was carried out using monochromatic Al Ka lines and Physical Electrons Quantum 2000 Scanning Esca Microprobe (VG, Madison, WI, USA). The produced N2O was detected using a gas chromatograph (Agilent 7820A, Santa Clara, CA, USA) equipped with a packed molecular sieve column (CBP-PSN.A) and nitrogen as a carrier gas.

3.3. Photocatalytic Reaction

For the N2O evolution experiment, a 380 mL (40 cm in long, 3.2 cm in diameter) quartz glass tube equipped with CaF2 windows was used (Figure S1). TiO2 (30 mg) was dispersed in 10 mL deionized water or simulated seawater (10 mL, 0.462 M NaCl, 1.3 mM MgSO4, 0.04 M MgCl, 6.8 mM MgBr2) and then poured into the tube. Before light irradiation, the cell was evacuated and refilled with the reaction gas (flow rate, 20 mL/min) several times to remove air inside the tube and finally filled with reaction gas to reach a pressure of one bar. The tube was then sealed and kept at the appropriate reaction temperatures (3 °C or room temperature). The sealed tube was irradiated using a 300 W Xe lamp. The composition of the gas-phase mixture was analyzed using high-resolution Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). In the gas–solid reaction experiment, 30 mg TiO2 was dispersed in deionized water (5 mL) under ultrasonic stirring. The TiO2 suspension was then deposited on half of a glass substrate (2 cm × 2 cm), and dried at 60 °C overnight. Finally, the glass substrate was placed into the quartz glass tube with the TiO2-loaded part of the substrate above the surface of water.
The decomposition of N2O was performed in the quartz glass tube at room temperature. The reactor was evacuated and purged with N2 (flow rate, 20 mL/min) several times and finally filled with N2O (flow rate, 30 mL/min) and N2 (flow rate, 60 mL/min) to reach a pressure of one bar. The tube was then sealed and irradiated using a 300 W Xe lamp for several days. The composition of the gas-phase mixture was analyzed using gas chromatography [45]. The gas–solid reaction experiments were performed using the same method as above (N2O evolution experiment), except that the reaction tube was filled with N2O and N2.

3.4. Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer

The ratio of 18O-labeled H2O was evaluated using an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (Delta V Advantage, ThermoFisher, Waltham, MA, USA) equipped with an elemental analyzer (FLASH EA 1112) and a ConFlo III versatile interface. The 18O content of the generated N2O was investigated using a stable isotope ratio mass spectrometer (Mat253, ThermoFisher, Waltham, MA, USA) equipped with a multipurpose online gas preparation instrument (GasBench II, ThermoFisher, Waltham, MA, USA containing a PoraPlotQ chromatographic column (30 m × 0.32 mm) and a GC autosampler (CombiPAL, CTC).

4. Conclusions

In summary, this study revealed a geochemical pathway for the photocatalytic conversion of NH3 and H2O to N2O using a mimicked early reducing atmosphere, providing feasible evidence for the possible transformation of a NH3-rich atmosphere to a N2O-rich atmosphere on the early Earth. A N2O-rich atmosphere would have been more suitable to warm the Earth and provides a favorable way of solving the faint young Sun paradox. Moreover, the photodecomposition of N2O to N2 and O2 may have been an important step in the chemical evolution of the reducing atmosphere to the modern atmosphere. This work offers a possible new insight into the contribution of photocatalysis in the chemical evolution of the early atmosphere, which has crucial implications for understanding the modern Earth system.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/catal13091310/s1, Figure S1: (a) XRD pattern of TiO2 and JCPDS standard card (21-1272) [59]; (b) TEM image of TiO2. (Inset shows the HRTEM of TiO2, where lattice fringes with a spacing of 0.35 nm correspond to the (101) plane of TiO2 [60].); Figure S2: (a) UV-Vis diffusion reflectance spectrum (DRS) of TiO2. (Inset: a value of 3.34 eV was observed read for the band gap of TiO2 between the (F(R)hv)1/2 and E plots.); (b) XPS survey of commercial TiO2 [61]; (c) Ti 2p lines and fit. The peak at 458.6 eV fits to Ti4+, which is attributed to Ti-O in the TiO2 [62]; (d) O 1s lines and fit; Figure S3: The production of H2 and N2O with TiO2 and light after 5 days illumination; Figure S4: Comparison of the reaction liquid ion chromatogram after irradiation (black line) and standard ion chromatogram (red line) of NO3− and NO2−.

Author Contributions

C.H. presented the ideas in the manuscript. C.C. and F.X. conducted experiments. C.C., Q.W. and W.S. analyzed the results. C.C. and F.X. wrote the manuscript with revision from C.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant nos. 22072024 and U1662112).

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Goldblatt, C.; Zahnle, K.J. Faint young Sun paradox remains. Nature 2011, 474, E1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Sagan, C.; Mullen, G. Earth and Mars: Evolution of atmospheres and surface temperatures. Science 1972, 177, 52–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Peck, W.H.; Valley, J.W.; Wilde, S.A.; Graham, C.M. Oxygen isotope ratios and rare earth elements in 3.3 to 4.4 Ga zircons: Ion microprobe evidence for high delta O18 continental crust and oceans in the Early Archean. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2001, 65, 4215–4229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Kiehl, J.T.; Dickinson, R.E. A Study of the Radiative Effects of Enhanced Atmospheric CO2 and CH4 on Early Earth Surface Temperatures. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 1987, 92, 2991–2998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Byrne, B.; Goldblatt, C. Diminished greenhouse warming from Archean methane due to solar absorption lines. Clim. Past 2015, 11, 559–570. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Rosing, M.T.; Bird, D.K.; Sleep, N.H.; Bjerrum, C.J. No climate paradox under the faint early Sun. Nature 2010, 464, 744–747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Airapetian, V.S.; Glocer, A.; Gronoff, G.; Hébrard, E.; Danchi, W. Prebiotic chemistry and atmospheric warming of early Earth by an active young Sun. Nat. Geosci. 2016, 9, 452–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Lan, X.; Zhu, L.; Yuan, Q. Long-Term Variation of Greenhouse Gas N2O Observed by MLS during 2005–2020. Remote Sens. 2022, 14, 955. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Rotmans, J.; Elzen, M.G.J.D. A model-based approach to the calculation of global warming potentials (GWP). Int. J. Clim. 1992, 12, 865–874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Nna-Mvondo, D.; Navarro-González, R.; Raulin, F.; Coll, P. Nitrogen Fixation By Corona Discharge On The Early Precambrian Earth. Space Life Sci. 2005, 35, 401–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Paytan, A. Earth history—Sulfate clues for the early history of atmospheric oxygen. Science 2000, 288, 626–627. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Planavsky, N.J.; Asael, D.; Hofmann, A.; Reinhard, C.T.; Lalonde, S.V.; Knudsen, A.; Wang, X.L.; Ossa, F.O.; Pecoits, E.; Smith, A.J.B.; et al. Rouxel Evidence for oxygenic photosynthesis half a billiion years before the Great Oxidation Event. Nat. Geosci. 2014, 7, 283–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Sumner, D.Y.; Hawes, I.; Mackey, T.J.; Jungblut, A.D.; Doran, P.T. Antarctic microbial mats: A modern analog for Archean lacustrine oxygen oases. Geology 2015, 43, 887–890. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Olson, S.L.; Kump, L.R.; Kasting, J.F. Quantifying the areal extent and dissolved oxygen concentrations of Archean oxygen oases. Chem. Geol. 2013, 362, 35–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Dismukes, G.C.; Klimov, V.V.; Baranov, S.V.; Kozlov, Y.N.; DasGupta, J.; Tyryshkin, A. The origin of atmospheric oxygen on Earth: The innovation of oxygenic photosynthesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001, 98, 2170–2175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Lu, Z.; Chang, Y.C.; Yin, Q.-Z.; Ng, C.Y.; Jackson, W.M. Evidence for direct molecular oxygen production in CO2 photodissociation. Science 2014, 346, 61–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Wang, X.D.; Gao, X.F.; Xuan, C.J.; Tian, S.X. Dissociative electron attachment to CO2 produces molecular oxygen. Nat. Chem. 2016, 8, 258–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Yamashita, T.A. Vannice N2O decomposition over manganese oxides. J. Catal. 1996, 161, 254–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Tsuji, M.; Kawahara, M.; Noda, K.; Senda, M.; Sako, H.; Kamo, N.; Kawahara, T.; Kamarudin, K.S. Photochemical removal of NO2 by using 172-nm Xe2 excimer lamp in N2 or air at atmospheric pressure. J. Hazard. Mater. 2009, 162, 1025–1033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Yuan, D.; Yu, S.; Xie, T.; Chen, W.; Wang, S.; Tan, Y.; Wang, T.; Yuan, K.; Yang, X.; Wang, X. Photodissociation Dynamics of Nitrous Oxide near 145 nm: The O(1S0) and O(3PJ=2,1,0) Product Channels. J. Phys. Chem. A 2018, 122, 2663–2669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  21. Honma, K. Laser initiated reactions in N2O clusters studied by time-sliced ion velocity imaging technique. J. Chem. Phys. 2013, 139, 044307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. McCollom, T.M. Miller-Urey and Beyond: What Have We Learned About Prebiotic Organic Synthesis Reactions in the Past 60 Years? Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2013, 41, 207–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Ning, S.; Ou, H.; Li, Y.; Lv, C.; Wang, S.; Wang, D.; Ye, J. Co0−Coδ+ Interface Double-Site-Mediated C-C Coupling for the Photothermal Conversion of CO2 into Light Olefins. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, 62, e202302253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Ning, S.; Xu, H.; Qi, Y.; Song, L.; Zhang, Q.; Ouyang, S.; Ye, J. Microstructure Induced Thermodynamic and Kinetic Modulation to Enhance CO2 Photothermal Reduction: A Case of Atomic-Scale Dispersed Co-N Species Anchored Co@C Hybrid. ACS Catal. 2020, 10, 4726–4736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Ning, S.; Sun, Y.; Ouyang, S.; Qi, Y.; Ye, J. Solar light-induced injection of hot electrons and photocarriers for synergistically enhanced photothermocatalysis over Cu-Co/SrTiO3 catalyst towards boosting CO hydrogenation into C2–C4 hydrocarbons. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2022, 310, 121063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Cnossen, I.; Sanz-Forcada, J.; Favata, F.; Witasse, O.; Zegers, T.; Arnold, N.F. Habitat of early life: Solar X-ray and UV radiation at Earth’s surface 4–3.5 billion years ago. J. Geophys. Res. 2007, 112, E02008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Cockell, C.S. The ultraviolet history of the terrestrial planets—implications for biological evolution. Planet. Space Sci. 2000, 48, 203–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Avice, G.; Marty, B.; Burgess, R. The origin and degassing history of the Earth’s atmosphere revealed by Archean xenon. Nat. Commun. 2017, 8, 15455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Reiche, H.; Bard, A.J. Heterogeneous photosynthetic production of amino acids from methane-ammonia-water at platinum/titanium dioxide. implications in chemical evolution. Chem. Informationsdienst 1979, 10, 3127–3128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Doane, T.A. A survey of photogeochemistry. Geochem. Trans. 2017, 18, 1. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  31. Ferris, J.P.; Hill, A.R.; Liu, R.H.; Orgel, L.E. Synthesis of long prebiotic oligomers on mineral surfaces. Nature 1996, 381, 59–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Hazen, R.M.; Papineau, D.; Leeker, W.B.; Downs, R.T.; Ferry, J.M.; McCoy, T.J.; Sverjensky, D.A.; Yang, H.X. Mineral evolution. Am. Mineral. 2008, 93, 1693–1720. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Byrne, B.; Goldblatt, C. Radiative forcings for 28 potential Archean greenhouse gases. Clim. Past. 2014, 10, 2011–2053. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Chyba, C.F. Atmospheric science—Rethinking Earth’s early atmosphere. Science 2005, 308, 962–963. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Ore, C.M.D.; Cruikshank, D.P.; Protopapa, S.; Scipioni, F.; McKinnon, W.B.; Cook, J.C.; Grundy, W.M.; Schmitt, B.; Stern, S.A.; Moore, J.M.; et al. Detection of ammonia on Pluto’s surface in a region of geologically recent tectonism. Sci. Adv. 2019, 5, eaav5731. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Healy, M.G.; Ibrahim, T.G.; Lanigan, G.J.; Serrenho, A.J.; Fenton, O. Nitrate removal rate, efficiency and pollution swapping potential of different organic carbon media in laboratory denitrification bioreactors. Ecol. Eng. 2012, 40, 198–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Stüeken, E.E.; Kipp, M.A.; Koehler, M.C.; Buick, R. The evolution of Earth’s biogeochemical nitrogen cycle. Earth-Sci. Rev. 2016, 160, 220–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Stueken, E.E. Nitrogen in Ancient Mud: A Biosignature? Astrobiology 2016, 16, 730–735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Stüeken, E.; Buick, R.; Schauer, A. Nitrogen isotope evidence for alkaline lakes on late Archean continents. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2015, 411, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Rapf, R.J.; Vaida, V. Sunlight as an energetic driver in the synthesis of molecules necessary for life. Phys. Chem 2016, 18, 20067–20084. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Buick, R. Did the Proterozoic ‘Canfield Ocean’ cause a laughing gas greenhouse? Geobiology 2010, 5, 97–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Roberson, A.L.; Roadt, J.; Halevy, I.; Kasting, J.F. Greenhouse warming by nitrous oxide and methane in the Proterozoic Eon. Geobiology 2011, 9, 313–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. Miller, S.L. A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions. Science 1953, 117, 528–529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Ferus, M.; Pietrucci, F.; Saitta, A.M.; Knížek, A.; Kubelík, P.; Ivanek, O.; Shestivska, V.; Civiš, S. Formation of nucleobases in a Miller–Urey reducing atmosphere. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2017, 114, 4306–4311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Liu, Y.M.; Cheng, Z.; He, B.; Gu, C.; Xiao, T.; Zhou, Z.; Guo, J.; Liu, H.; He, B.; Ye, B.; et al. Pothole-rich ultrathin WO3 nanosheets triggering N≡N bond activation of nitrogen for direct nitrate photosynthesis. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2018, 58, 731–735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Plank, T.; Langmuir, C.H. The chemical composition of subducting sediment and its consequences for the crust and mantle. Chem. Geol. 1998, 145, 325–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Civiš, S.; Knížek, A.; Ivanek, O.; Kubelík, P.; Zukalová, M.; Kavan, L.; Ferus, M. The origin of methane and biomolecules from a CO2 cycle on terrestrial planets. Nat. Astron. 2017, 1, 721–726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Montzka, S.A.; Dlugokencky, E.J.; Butler, J.H. Non-CO2 greenhouse gases and climate change. Nature 2011, 476, 43–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Riding, R.; Fralick, P.; Liang, L. Identification of an Archean marine oxygen oasis. Precambrian Res. 2014, 251, 232–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Mloszewska, A.M.; Cole, D.B.; Planavsky, N.J.; Kappler, A.; Whitford, D.S.; Owttrim, G.W.; Konhauser, K.O. UV radiation limited the expansion of cyanobacteria in early marine photic environments. Nat. Commun. 2018, 9, 3088. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Sheridan, P.P.; Freeman, K.H.; Brenchley, J.E. Estimated minimal divergence times of the major bacterial and archaeal phyla. Geomicrobiol. J. 2003, 20, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Komiya, T.; Hirata, T.; Kitajima, K.; Yamamoto, S.; Shibuya, T.; Sawaki, Y.; Ishikawa, T.; Shu, D.; Li, Y.; Han, J. Evolution of the composition of seawater through geologic time, and its influence on the evolution of life. Gondwana Res. 2008, 14, 159–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Och, L.M.; Shields-Zhou, G.A. The Neoproterozoic oxygenation event: Environmental perturbations and biogeochemical cycling. Earth Sci. Rev. 2012, 110, 26–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Kannan, S.; Swamy, C.S. Catalytic Decomposition of Nitrous-Oxide on in-Situ Generated Thermally Calcined Hydrotalcites. Appl. Catal. B 1994, 3, 109–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Johnston, D.; Poulton, S.; Goldberg, T.; Sergeev, V.; Podkovyrov, V.; Vorob’Eva, N.; Bekker, A.; Knoll, A. Late Ediacaran redox stability and metazoan evolution. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2012, 335–336, 25–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Selwyn, G.S.; Johnston, H.S. Ultraviolet absorption spectrum of nitrous oxide as a function of temperature and isotopic substitution. J. Chem. Phys. 1981, 74, 3791–3803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Harding, D.J.; Neugebohren, J.; Grütter, M.; Schmidt-May, A.F.; Auerbach, D.J.; Kitsopoulos, T.N.; Wodtke, A.M. Single-field slice-imaging with a movable repeller: Photodissociation of N2O from a hot nozzle. J. Chem. Phys. 2014, 141, 054201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Angulo-Brown, F.; Rosales, M.A.; Barranco-Jiménez, M.A. The Faint Young Sun Paradox: A Simplified Thermodynamic Approach. Adv. Astron. 2012, 2012, 478957. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Yang, H.G.; Sun, C.H.; Qiao, S.Z.; Zou, J.; Liu, G.; Smith, S.C.; Cheng, H.M.; Lu, G.Q. Anatase TiO2 single crystals with a large percentage of reactive facets. Nature 2008, 453, 638–641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  60. Wang, W.K.; Chen, J.J.; Zhang, X.; Huang, Y.X.; Li, W.W.; Yu, H.Q. Self-induced synthesis of phase-junction TiO2 with a tailored rutile to anatase ratio below phase transition temperature. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 20491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Yu, Y.; Wen, W.; Qian, X.Y.; Liu, J.B.; Wu, J.M. UV and visible light photocatalytic activity of Au/TiO2 nanoforests with Anatase/Rutile phase junctions and controlled Au locations. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 41253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  62. Batalovic, K.; Bundaleski, N.; Radakovic, J.; Abazovic, N.; Mitric, M.; Silva, R.A.; Savic, M.; Belosevic-Cavor, J.; Rakocevic, Z.; Rangel, C.M. Modification of N-doped TiO2 photocatalysts using noble metals (Pt, Pd)—A combined XPS and DFT study. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2017, 19, 7062–7071. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Catalysts 13 01310 g001
Figure 1. Schematic drawing of the experimental apparatus.
Figure 1. Schematic drawing of the experimental apparatus.
Catalysts 13 01310 g001
Catalysts 13 01310 g002
Figure 2. FTIR spectra of gas phase before irradiation and after 5 days of irradiation. Reaction gas: (a) CH4, H2, H2O, and NH3; (b) reaction gas: NH3 and H2O; reaction conditions: 10 mL H2O, ambient temperature; (c) reaction gas: NH3 and H2O; reaction conditions: 10 mL H2O, 3 °C; (d) reaction gas: NH3 and H2O; reaction conditions: 10 mL simulated seawater, ambient temperature.
Figure 2. FTIR spectra of gas phase before irradiation and after 5 days of irradiation. Reaction gas: (a) CH4, H2, H2O, and NH3; (b) reaction gas: NH3 and H2O; reaction conditions: 10 mL H2O, ambient temperature; (c) reaction gas: NH3 and H2O; reaction conditions: 10 mL H2O, 3 °C; (d) reaction gas: NH3 and H2O; reaction conditions: 10 mL simulated seawater, ambient temperature.
Catalysts 13 01310 g002
Catalysts 13 01310 g003
Figure 3. The evolution of N2O via photocatalytic oxidation of NH3. (a) FTIR spectra of gas phase over 4 days of reaction; (b) the evolution rate of N2O with TiO2 with light (red line), without any catalyst (black line), and without light (blue line).
Figure 3. The evolution of N2O via photocatalytic oxidation of NH3. (a) FTIR spectra of gas phase over 4 days of reaction; (b) the evolution rate of N2O with TiO2 with light (red line), without any catalyst (black line), and without light (blue line).
Catalysts 13 01310 g003
Catalysts 13 01310 g004
Figure 4. Spectra of the gas-phase mixture after 5 days of reaction with titanium dioxide and light (black line), without light (green line), and without any catalyst (blue line) [44]. Reactant gas: (a) CH4, H2, H2O, and NH3; (b) NH3 and H2O.
Figure 4. Spectra of the gas-phase mixture after 5 days of reaction with titanium dioxide and light (black line), without light (green line), and without any catalyst (blue line) [44]. Reactant gas: (a) CH4, H2, H2O, and NH3; (b) NH3 and H2O.
Catalysts 13 01310 g004
Catalysts 13 01310 g005
Figure 5. (a) FTIR spectra of the gas-phase mixture over 48 h of photocatalytic reaction. (b) The evolution rate of N2O with TiO2 and light (red line), and without any catalyst (black line), without light (blue line). Reaction conditions: 30 mg catalyst deposited on a glass substrate (2 cm × 2 cm), NH3, 10 mL H2O, ambient temperature.
Figure 5. (a) FTIR spectra of the gas-phase mixture over 48 h of photocatalytic reaction. (b) The evolution rate of N2O with TiO2 and light (red line), and without any catalyst (black line), without light (blue line). Reaction conditions: 30 mg catalyst deposited on a glass substrate (2 cm × 2 cm), NH3, 10 mL H2O, ambient temperature.
Catalysts 13 01310 g005
Catalysts 13 01310 g006
Figure 6. (a) Content of N2O and N2 mixture after several days of reaction with light and TiO2; (b) comparison of the contents of N2O and N2 mixture after several days of reaction without light (black line), with light and TiO2 (blue line), and with light but no TiO2 (red line). “Relative amounts” refers to the gas proportion of N2 or N2O to the sum of N2 and N2O.
Figure 6. (a) Content of N2O and N2 mixture after several days of reaction with light and TiO2; (b) comparison of the contents of N2O and N2 mixture after several days of reaction without light (black line), with light and TiO2 (blue line), and with light but no TiO2 (red line). “Relative amounts” refers to the gas proportion of N2 or N2O to the sum of N2 and N2O.
Catalysts 13 01310 g006
Catalysts 13 01310 g007
Figure 7. Sketch of the possible primary nitrogen flow on the early Earth.
Figure 7. Sketch of the possible primary nitrogen flow on the early Earth.
Catalysts 13 01310 g007
Table 1. Oxygen isotopic compositions of N2O and 18O-labeled H2O.
Table 1. Oxygen isotopic compositions of N2O and 18O-labeled H2O.
SampleAmpl 44/28δ18OV-SMOW‰ AT% 18O/16O
18O-labeled H2O4867209.51.4826
N2O1261018.30.4051
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Cheng, C.; Xu, F.; Shi, W.; Wang, Q.; Huang, C. Photocatalysis: A Possible Vital Contributor to the Evolution of the Prebiotic Atmosphere and the Warming of the Early Earth. Catalysts 2023, 13, 1310. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13091310

AMA Style

Cheng C, Xu F, Shi W, Wang Q, Huang C. Photocatalysis: A Possible Vital Contributor to the Evolution of the Prebiotic Atmosphere and the Warming of the Early Earth. Catalysts. 2023; 13(9):1310. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13091310

Chicago/Turabian Style

Cheng, Chuchu, Fangjie Xu, Wenwen Shi, Qiaoyun Wang, and Caijin Huang. 2023. "Photocatalysis: A Possible Vital Contributor to the Evolution of the Prebiotic Atmosphere and the Warming of the Early Earth" Catalysts 13, no. 9: 1310. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13091310

APA Style

Cheng, C., Xu, F., Shi, W., Wang, Q., & Huang, C. (2023). Photocatalysis: A Possible Vital Contributor to the Evolution of the Prebiotic Atmosphere and the Warming of the Early Earth. Catalysts, 13(9), 1310. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13091310

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop