Mycotoxin Occurrence in Maize Silage—A Neglected Risk for Bovine Gut Health?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Mycotoxin Occurrence in Maize Silage
2.2. Cytotoxicity of Mycotoxins on Calf Small Intestinal Epithelial Cells
3. Discussion
4. Conclusions
5. Materials and Methods
5.1. Mycotoxin Survey
5.2. In vitro Experiments
5.2.1. Cell Line
5.2.2. Routine Cultivation of CIEB
5.2.3. Characterization of CIEB by Immunohistochemistry (Cytokeration, Vimentin and Villin)
5.2.4. Cytotoxicity Tests
5.2.5. Sphinganine and Sphingosine Analysis
5.2.6. Data Analysis
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mycotoxin | Positive Samples 1 (n) | Positive Samples 1 (%) | Median Concentration 2 (µg/kg) | 75th Percentile 2 (µg/kg) | 95th Percentile2 (µg/kg) | Maximum Concentration (µg/kg) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Regulated mycotoxins (except ergot alkaloids) 3 | ||||||
Aflatoxin B1 4 | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
Deoxynivalenol | 107 | 67.7 | 303 | 556 | 1490 | 3060 |
Fumonisin B1 | 55 | 34.8 | 60.0 | 147 | 262 | 553 |
Fumonisin B2 | 46 | 29.1 | 20.4 | 34.4 | 101 | 133 |
Ochratoxin A | 4 | 2.5 | 2.38 | 2.51 | 2.62 | 2.65 |
Zearalenone | 107 | 67.7 | 15.2 | 61 | 1110 | 1670 |
Ergot alkaloids 3 | ||||||
Ergine | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
Ergocornine | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
Ergocorninin | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
Ergocristine | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
Ergocristinine | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
Ergocryptine | 2 | 1.3 | 5.41 | 7.77 | 9.65 | 10.12 |
Ergocryptinine | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
Ergometrine | 1 | 0.6 | 49.6 | 49.6 | 49.6 | 49.6 |
Ergometrinine | 1 | 0.6 | 3.20 | 3.20 | 3.20 | 3.20 |
Ergosin | 2 | 1.3 | 1.89 | 1.90 | 1.91 | 1.91 |
Ergosinin | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
Ergotamine | 1 | 0.6 | 1.54 | 1.54 | 1.54 | 1.54 |
Ergotaminine | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
Ergovalin | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
Type-A trichothecenes | ||||||
Diacetoxyscirpenol | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
HT-2 toxin | 34 | 21.5 | 14.7 | 21.4 | 51.9 | 90.2 |
Monoacetoxyscirpenol | 4 | 2.5 | 9.91 | 15.9 | 29.5 | 32.9 |
Neosolaniol | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
T-2 toxin | 6 | 3.8 | 2.55 | 2.89 | 3.79 | 4.08 |
Type-B trichothecenes | ||||||
3-Acetyldeoxynivalenol | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
15-Acetyldeoxynivalenol | 8 | 5.1 | 274 | 480 | 624 | 687 |
Nivalenol | 94 | 59.5 | 113 | 237 | 623 | 5770 |
Modified mycotoxins | ||||||
Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside | 40 | 25.3 | 17.1 | 49.2 | 121 | 129 |
HT-2-toxin-3-glucoside 5 | 1 | 0.6 | 6.28 | 6.28 | 6.28 | 6.28 |
Nivalenol-3-glucoside 5 | 5 | 3.2 | 6.01 | 6.06 | 9.68 | 10.6 |
α-zearalenol | 12 | 7.6 | 4.84 | 6.93 | 18.1 | 22.2 |
β-zearalenol | 8 | 5.1 | 4.90 | 6.66 | 12.4 | 12.6 |
Emerging mycotoxins | ||||||
Alternariol | 45 | 28.5 | 3.11 | 4.45 | 12.1 | 48.1 |
Alternariol methylether | 37 | 23.4 | 1.95 | 3.46 | 5.79 | 30.8 |
Apicidin | 79 | 50.0 | 9.49 | 25.0 | 102 | 175 |
Aurofusarin | 108 | 68.4 | 97.8 | 307 | 3840 | 4710 |
Beauvericin | 120 | 76.0 | 9.16 | 19.0 | 75.9 | 214 |
Bikaverin | 42 | 26.6 | 20.3 | 58.8 | 248 | 415 |
Butenolid | 30 | 19.0 | 28.9 | 70.9 | 249 | 583 |
Culmorin | 125 | 79.1 | 190 | 719 | 2930 | 6680 |
5-Hydroxyculmorin | 19 | 12.0 | 571 | 989 | 1400 | 1480 |
15-Hydroxyculmorin | 84 | 53.2 | 229 | 504 | 1520 | 1670 |
15-Hydroxyculmoron | 22 | 13.9 | 204 | 396 | 441 | 484 |
Emodin | 131 | 82.9 | 4.38 | 14.1 | 211 | 1640 |
Enniatin A | 30 | 19.0 | 2.45 | 5.23 | 32.5 | 50.1 |
Enniatin A1 | 98 | 62.0 | 2.70 | 8.73 | 25.2 | 173.9 |
Enniatin B | 121 | 76.6 | 7.07 | 13.8 | 47.4 | 429 |
Enniatin B1 | 124 | 78.5 | 5.68 | 15.5 | 46.7 | 555 |
Enniatin B2 | 8 | 5.1 | 3.40 | 5.49 | 16.0 | 20.7 |
Enniatin B3 | 0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - |
Equisetin | 86 | 54.4 | 4.75 | 8.42 | 17.4 | 45.4 |
Fusaproliferin | 4 | 2.5 | 170 | 286 | 316 | 322.3 |
Fusaric acid | 35 | 22.2 | 229 | 998 | 1800 | 4120 |
Kojic acid | 67 | 42.4 | 96.3 | 185 | 876 | 25,930 |
Moniliformin | 71 | 44.9 | 7.84 | 18.5 | 61.6 | 113 |
Mycophenolic Acid | 9 | 5.7 | 14.8 | 80 | 262 | 352 |
Roquefortine C | 7 | 4.4 | 11.7 | 21.3 | 326 | 454 |
Sterigmatocystin | 3 | 1.9 | 2.38 | 5.89 | 8.65 | 9.35 |
Tenuazonic acid | 42 | 26.6 | 60.6 | 182 | 574 | 727 |
FB1 (µM) | Sa (ng/mL) | So (ng/mL) | Sa/So |
---|---|---|---|
0 | 0.21 ± 0.81 a | 1.40 ± 0.40 | 0.15 ± 0.02 a |
0.781 | 0.28 ± 0.10 a | 1.42 ± 0.33 | 0.20 ± 0.03 a |
1.563 | 0.53 ± 0.25 a | 1.70 ± 0.47 | 0.31 ± 0.06 a |
3.125 | 3.89 ± 1.51 a | 1.61 ± 0.25 | 2.36 ± 0.55 a |
6.25 | 15.60 ± 5.91 a | 1.53 ± 0.25 | 9.98 ± 2.20 b |
12.5 | 33.61 ± 13.29 a | 1.96 ± 0.64 | 16.96 ± 2.11 b |
25 | 44.57 ± 17.19 b | 2.36 ± 1.00 | 19.11 ± 1.71 b |
50 | 50.64 ± 25.01 b | 2.49 ± 1.11 | 20.08 ± 0.86 b |
100 | 53.57 ± 23.27 b | 2.29 ± 0.90 | 23.25 ± 1.15 b |
200 | 56.13 ± 26.26 b | 2.16 ± 0.83 | 25.58 ± 2.11 b |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.0462 | <0.0001 |
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Reisinger, N.; Schürer-Waldheim, S.; Mayer, E.; Debevere, S.; Antonissen, G.; Sulyok, M.; Nagl, V. Mycotoxin Occurrence in Maize Silage—A Neglected Risk for Bovine Gut Health? Toxins 2019, 11, 577. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11100577
Reisinger N, Schürer-Waldheim S, Mayer E, Debevere S, Antonissen G, Sulyok M, Nagl V. Mycotoxin Occurrence in Maize Silage—A Neglected Risk for Bovine Gut Health? Toxins. 2019; 11(10):577. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11100577
Chicago/Turabian StyleReisinger, Nicole, Sonja Schürer-Waldheim, Elisabeth Mayer, Sandra Debevere, Gunther Antonissen, Michael Sulyok, and Veronika Nagl. 2019. "Mycotoxin Occurrence in Maize Silage—A Neglected Risk for Bovine Gut Health?" Toxins 11, no. 10: 577. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11100577
APA StyleReisinger, N., Schürer-Waldheim, S., Mayer, E., Debevere, S., Antonissen, G., Sulyok, M., & Nagl, V. (2019). Mycotoxin Occurrence in Maize Silage—A Neglected Risk for Bovine Gut Health? Toxins, 11(10), 577. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11100577