Do Lower Calorie or Lower Fat Foods Have More Sodium Than Their Regular Counterparts?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Product Categories | Total # of Products | # of Matches | Proportion (%) of Modified Foods That Decreased in | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Per 100 g of Food | Per Labeled Serving Size | |||||||||
Calories | Sodium | Total Fat | Sat Fat | Calories | Sodium | Total Fat | Sat Fat | |||
Total | 497 | 283 | 90.1 | 39.2 | 92.6 | 87.6 | 90.1 | 37.8 | 90.5 | 84.5 |
Cheese | 188 | 105 | 92.4 | 22.9 | 97.1 | 95.2 | 91.4 | 23.8 | 93.3 | 91.4 |
Salad dressings | 161 | 90 | 100.0 | 28.9 | 100.0 | 95.6 | 100.0 | 24.4 | 100.0 | 95.6 |
Savory Snacks | 67 | 44 | 81.8 | 47.7 | 81.8 | 84.1 | 84.1 | 47.7 | 79.6 | 77.3 |
Soups | 81 | 44 | 72.7 | 90.9 | 77.3 | 56.8 | 72.7 | 88.6 | 75.0 | 52.3 |
Per 100 g of Food | Per Labeled Serving Size | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SE) Calories (kcal) | Mean (SE) Sodium (mg) | Mean (SE) Total Fat (g) | Mean (SE) Sat. Fat (g) | Mean (SE) Calories (kcal) | Mean (SE) Sodium (mg) | Mean (SE) Total Fat (g) | Mean (SE) Sat. Fat (g) | |
Cheese | ||||||||
Regular (n = 83) | 347.3 (8.1) | 698.6 (34.8) | 27.4 (0.8) | 17.0 (0.5) | 91.3 (2.2) | 174.3 (7.1) | 7.2 (0.2) | 4.5 (0.1) |
Modified (n = 105) | 257.5 (7.8) | 762.1 (38.9) | 16.0 (0.8) | 9.8 (0.5) | 69.5 (2.2) | 191.2 (7.9) | 4.3 (0.2) | 2.6 (0.1) |
Average Difference 1 | −78.2 (4.9) | 72.9 (11.3) | −10.3 (0.6) | −6.5 (0.4) | −20.8 (1.8) | 20.4 (3.5) | −2.8 (0.2) | −1.7 (0.1) |
Percent Change 2 | −22.5 | 10.4 | −37.6 | −38.2 | −22.8 | 11.7 | −38.9 | −37.8 |
p-value 3 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Salad Dressings | ||||||||
Regular (n = 71) | 422.3 (12.1) | 889.8 (29.3) | 40.3 (1.5) | 6.0 (0.3) | 127.5 (3.8) | 269.6 (9.6) | 12.1 (0.4) | 1.8 (0.1) |
Modified (n = 90) | 192.1 (7.3) | 971.1 (25.6) | 12.1 (1.0) | 1.8 (0.2) 4 | 58.9 (2.2) | 299.1 (8.0) | 3.6 (0.3) | 0.5 (0.1) 4 |
Average Difference 1 | −222.6 (8.6) | 74.3 (22.8) | −27.3 (1.1) | −4.1 (0.2) | −66.4 (2.7) | 26.9 (7.5) | −8.2 (0.3) | −1.2 (0.1) |
Percent Change 2 | −52.7 | 8.4 | −67.7 | −68.3 | −52.1 | 10.0 | −67.8 | −66.7 |
p-value 3 | <0.001 | 0.002 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.001 | <0.001 |
Savory Snacks | ||||||||
Regular (n = 23) | 533.9 (6.4) | 699.5 (45.4) | 33.0 (0.8) | 7.8 (1.0) | 155.2 (1.9) | 204.8 (14.6) | 9.7 (0.3) | 2.4 (0.4) |
Modified (n = 44) | 453.3 (15.7) | 645.7 (21.8) | 19.7 (1.8) | 5.2 (0.8) | 130.8 (5.9) | 188.6 (9.2) | 5.8 (0.6) | 1.6 (0.3) |
Average Difference 1 | −81.6 (16.5) | −15.7 (27.8) | −13.5 (1.9) | −3.1 (0.6) | −24.2 (5.7) | −4.1 (9.9) | −3.9 (0.6) | −0.9 (0.2) |
Percent Change 2 | −15.3 | −2.2 | −40.9 | −39.7 | −15.6 | −2.0 | −40.2 | −37.5 |
p-value 3 | <0.001 | 0.580 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.001 | 0.684 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Soups | ||||||||
Regular (n = 37) | 62.5 (3.3) | 428.7 (29.2) | 2.0 (0.3) | 0.5 (0.1) | 124.3 (5.6) | 805.7 (15.7) | 3.9 (0.5) | 1.0 (0.1) |
Modified (n = 44) | 50.2 (2.7) | 285.5 (18.6) | 1.1 (0.1) | 0.3 (0.0) 5 | 98.6 (4.3) | 543.4 (24.1) | 2.0 (0.1) | 0.6 (0.1) |
Average Difference 1 | −14.1 (2.4) | −163.4 (20.2) | −1.2 (0.2) | −0.3 (0.1) | −24.5 (4.0) | −267.0 (27.1) | −2.1 (0.4) | −0.5 (0.1) |
Percent Change 2 | −22.6 | −38.1 | −60.0 | −60.0 | −19.7 | −33.1 | −53.8 | −50.0 |
p-value 3 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Per 100 g of Food | Per Labeled Serving Size | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SE) Calories (kcal) | Mean (SE) Sodium (mg) | Mean (SE) Total Fat (g) | Mean (SE) Sat. Fat (g) | Mean (SE) Calories (kcal) | Mean (SE) Sodium (mg) | Mean (SE) Total Fat (g) | Mean (SE) Sat. Fat (g) | |
25% Reduction in Labeled Calories | ||||||||
Cheese | ||||||||
Regular (n = 35) | 335.5 (13.0) | 715.9 (60.8) | 25.7 (1.3) | 15.8 (0.8) | 90.3 (3.6) | 173.9 (11.1) | 6.9 (0.4) | 4.3 (0.2) |
Modified (n = 43) | 213.8 (12.9) | 763.8 (68.0) | 12.0 (1.5) | 7.2 (0.9) | 57.3 (2.9) | 185.7 (13.5) | 3.1 (0.4) | 1.8 (0.2) |
Average Difference 2 | −109.7 (7.8) | 80.2 (18.2) | −12.9 (1.1) | −8.1 (0.7) | −34.3 (1.8) | 17.7 (5.3) | −3.9 (0.3) | −2.5 (0.2) |
Percent Change 3 | −32.7 | 11.2 | −50.2 | −51.3 | −38.0 | 10.2 | −56.5 | −58.1 |
p-value 4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.002 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Salad Dressings | ||||||||
Regular (n = 69) | 427.6 (11.7) | 891.7 (30.1) | 40.9 (1.4) | 6.1 (0.3) | 129.0 (3.7) | 269.9 (9.9) | 12.3 (0.4) | 1.8 (0.1) |
Modified (n = 88) | 192.4 (7.4) | 974.2 (26.1) | 12.1 (1.0) | 1.7 (0.2) 5 | 58.9 (2.2) | 298.9 (8.1) | 3.6 (0.3) | 0.5 (0.1) 5 |
Average Difference 2 | −226.2 (8.4) | 75.8 (23.2) | −27.7 (1.1) | −4.2 (0.2) | −67.6 (2.6) | 26.4 (7.5) | −8.4 (0.3) | −1.3 (0.1) |
Percent Change 3 | −52.9 | 8.5 | −67.7 | −68.9 | −52.4 | 9.8 | −68.3 | −72.2 |
p-value 4 | <0.001 | 0.002 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Savory Snacks | ||||||||
Regular (n = 9) | 528.6 (10.2) | 792.9 (75.0) | 33.5 (0.8) | 8.3 (1.5) | 155.6 (3.2) | 236.7 (26.6) | 9.9 (0.4) | 2.6 (0.6) |
Modified (n = 14) | 395.5 (32.5) | 650.6 (41.2) | 14.8 (3.3) | 4.2 (1.2) | 96.1 (4.6) | 171.4 (19.6) | 3.3 (0.6) | 0.9 (0.3) |
Average Difference 2 | −132.1 (34.6) | −80.5 (61.6) | −18.4 (3.6) | −4.9 (1.4) | −58.9 (4.1) | −46.4 (18.9) | −6.5 (0.7) | −1.9 (0.4) |
Percent Change 3 | −25.0 | −10.2 | −54.9 | −59.0 | −37.9 | −19.6 | −65.7 | −73.1 |
p-value 4 | 0.003 | 0.230 | <0.001 | 0.005 | <0.001 | 0.034 | <0.001 | 0.001 |
Soups | ||||||||
Regular (n = 13) | 70.8 (4.8) | 429.2 (44.9) | 3.6 (0.5) | 0.9 (0.1) | 145.4 (10.0) | 833.8 (19.9) | 7.0 (0.9) | 1.8 (0.3) |
Modified (n = 17) | 46.0 (2.2) | 335.8 (32.5) | 1.4 (0.0) 6 | 0.4 (0.0) 6 | 88.8 (6.2) | 612.9 (36.6) | 2.5 (0.2) | 0.7 (0.1) |
Average Difference 2 | −28.8 (3.0) | −141.1 (29.8) | −2.7 (0.4) | −0.6 (0.1) | −52.4 (4.8) | −229.4 (39.4) | −4.7 (0.6) | −1.1 (0.2) |
Percent Change 3 | −40.7 | −32.9 | −75.0 | −66.7 | −36.0 | −27.5 | −67.1 | −61.1 |
p-value 4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
25% Reduction in Labeled Fat | ||||||||
Cheese | ||||||||
Regular (n = 73) | 348.4 (9.0) | 711.3 (38.7) | 27.6 (0.9) | 17.1 (0.6) | 92.5 (2.4) | 177.7 (7.8) | 7.3 (0.2) | 4.6 (0.1) |
Modified (n = 86) | 252.0 (8.7) | 791.3 (44.0) | 15.1 (0.9) | 9.4 (0.6) | 65.6 (2.1) | 194.0 (9.0) | 3.9 (0.2) | 2.4 (0.1) |
Average Difference 2 | −87.7 (5.1) | 82.4 (13) | −11.7 (0.6) | −7.3 (0.4) | −26.0 (1.4) | 18.5 (3.6) | −3.4 (0.2) | −2.1 (0.1) |
Percent Change 3 | −25.2 | 11.6 | −42.4 | −42.7 | −28.1 | 10.4 | −46.6 | −45.7 |
p-value 4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Salad Dressings | ||||||||
Regular (n = 70) | 423.8 (12.2) | 889.6 (29.7) | 40.5 (1.5) | 6.0 (0.3) | 127.9 (3.8) | 269.4 (9.7) | 12.2 (0.4) | 1.8 (0.1) |
Modified (n = 89) | 191.3 (7.4) | 973.3 (25.8) | 12.0 (1.0) | 1.7 (0.2) 5 | 58.7 (2.2) | 299.8 (8.0) | 3.6 (0.3) | 0.5 (0.1) 5 |
Average Difference 2 | −224.4 (8.5) | 76.6 (23.0) | −27.5 (1.1) | −4.2 (0.2) | −67 (2.6) | 27.7 (7.5) | −8.3 (0.3) | −1.3 (0.1) |
Percent Change 3 | −52.9 | 8.6 | −67.9 | −70.0 | −52.4 | 10.3 | −68.0 | −72.2 |
p-value 4 | <0.001 | 0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Savory Snacks | ||||||||
Regular (n = 19) | 536.1 (7.3) | 705.8 (53.8) | 33.3 (0.9) | 7.2 (1.1) | 155.3 (2.2) | 205.8 (17.2) | 9.7 (0.3) | 2.2 (0.4) |
Modified (n = 31) | 414.9 (15.0) | 649.5 (25.8) | 13.9 (1.4) | 2.8 (0.5) | 112.7 (3.5) | 181.5 (10.2) | 3.6 (0.3) | 0.7 (0.1) |
Average Difference 2 | −124.0 (15.9) | −22.6 (37.8) | −19.5 (1.7) | −4.3 (0.8) | −42.4 (3.6) | −13.4 (12.2) | −6 (0.4) | −1.4 (0.3) |
Percent Change 3 | −23.1 | −3.2 | −58.6 | −59.7 | −27.3 | −6.5 | −61.9 | −63.6 |
p-value 4 | <0.001 | 0.562 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.290 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Soups | ||||||||
Regular (n = 19) | 64.8 (4.4) | 412.3 (37.7) | 3.0 (0.5) | 0.7 (0.1) | 134.7 (8.0) | 815.8 (18.4) | 5.7 (0.8) | 1.5 (0.2) |
Modified (n = 24) | 46.6 (1.9) | 315.6 (29.8) | 1.1 (0.1) | 0.3 (0.0) 6 | 94.2 (5.1) | 591.7 (32.8) | 2.0 (0.2) | 0.6 (0.1) |
Average Difference 2 | −21.3 (3.2) | −129.9 (23.1) | −2.2 (0.3) | −0.5 (0.1) | −38.8 (5.4) | −232.1 (34.9) | −3.9 (0.5) | −0.9 (0.1) |
Percent Change 3 | −32.9 | −31.5 | −73.3 | −71.4 | −28.8 | −28.5 | −68.4 | −60.0 |
p-value 4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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John, K.A.; Maalouf, J.; B. Barsness, C.; Yuan, K.; Cogswell, M.E.; Gunn, J.P. Do Lower Calorie or Lower Fat Foods Have More Sodium Than Their Regular Counterparts? Nutrients 2016, 8, 511. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8080511
John KA, Maalouf J, B. Barsness C, Yuan K, Cogswell ME, Gunn JP. Do Lower Calorie or Lower Fat Foods Have More Sodium Than Their Regular Counterparts? Nutrients. 2016; 8(8):511. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8080511
Chicago/Turabian StyleJohn, Katherine A., Joyce Maalouf, Christina B. Barsness, Keming Yuan, Mary E. Cogswell, and Janelle P. Gunn. 2016. "Do Lower Calorie or Lower Fat Foods Have More Sodium Than Their Regular Counterparts?" Nutrients 8, no. 8: 511. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8080511