Associations between Conventional and Emerging Indicators of Dietary Carbohydrate Quality and New-Onset Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Chinese Adults
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Dietary Intake Data Collection and Assessment
2.3. Calculation of Dietary GI, CF and CQI
2.4. Ascertainment of T2DM
2.5. Assessment of Covariates
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Sociodemographic, Anthropometric and Lifestyle Characteristics of Study Participants at Baseline
3.2. Associations between Dietary GI, CF and CQI Values and T2DM Risk
3.3. Associations between Dietary GI, CF and CQI Values and T2DM Risk on the Basis of Potential Effect Modifiers
3.4. The Dose–Response Relationship between Dietary GI, CF and CQI Values and the Risk of T2DM
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Total | Quintiles of Dietary GI Value | Quintiles of Dietary CF Value | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 | Q3 | Q5 | Q1 | Q3 | Q5 | ||
n | 14,590 | 2918 | 2918 | 2918 | 2918 | 2918 | 2918 |
Age, years | 45 ± 15 | 46 ± 17 | 45 ± 14 | 45 ± 15 | 46 ± 14 | 44 ± 14 | 46 ± 17 |
Male, n (%) | 7402 (50.7) | 1384 (47.4) | 1510 (51.7) | 1554 (53.3) | 1416 (48.5) | 1468 (50.3) | 1516 (52.0) |
BMI, kg/m2 | 23.2 ± 3.3 | 23.0 ± 3.4 | 23.2 ± 3.2 | 23.4 ± 3.3 | 23.8 ± 3.5 | 23.4 ± 3.2 | 22.4 ± 3.2 |
Baseline hypertension, n (%) | 3095 (21.2) | 647 (22.2) | 597 (20.5) | 621 (21.3) | 699 (24.0) | 627 (21.5) | 572 (19.6) |
Education level, n (%) | |||||||
Primary | 6860 (47.0) | 1182 (40.5) | 1417 (48.6) | 1420 (48.7) | 1004 (34.4) | 1499 (51.4) | 1568 (53.7) |
Middle | 4145 (28.4) | 788 (27.0) | 825 (28.3) | 945 (32.4) | 842 (28.9) | 808 (27.7) | 810 (27.8) |
High | 3585 (24.6) | 948 (32.5) | 676 (23.2) | 553 (19.0) | 1072 (36.7) | 611 (20.9) | 540 (18.5) |
Urbanization index, n (%) | |||||||
Low | 4846 (33.2) | 629 (21.6) | 915 (31.4) | 1433 (49.1) | 582 (19.9) | 1171 (40.1) | 1088 (37.3) |
Moderate | 4881 (33.5) | 918 (31.5) | 999 (34.2) | 939 (32.2) | 856 (29.3) | 959 (32.9) | 1007 (34.5) |
High | 4863 (33.3) | 1371 (47.0) | 1004 (34.4) | 546 (18.7) | 1480 (50.7) | 788 (27.0) | 823 (28.2) |
Region | |||||||
Northern | 6066 (41.6) | 777 (26.6) | 1125 (38.6) | 1823 (62.5) | 1361 (46.6) | 1518 (52.0) | 621 (21.3) |
Southern | 8524 (58.4) | 2141 (73.4) | 1793 (61.4) | 1095 (37.5) | 1557 (53.4) | 1400 (48.0) | 2297 (78.7) |
Smoking status, n (%) | |||||||
No | 9133 (62.6) | 1973 (67.6) | 1772 (60.7) | 1804 (61.8) | 1984 (68.0) | 1778 (60.9) | 1812 (62.1) |
Yes | 5457 (37.4) | 945 (32.4) | 1146 (39.3) | 1114 (38.2) | 934 (32.0) | 1140 (39.1) | 1106 (37.9) |
Alcohol consumption, n (%) | |||||||
No | 7478 (51.3) | 1670 (57.2) | 1367 (46.8) | 1627 (55.8) | 1509 (51.7) | 1456 (49.9) | 1620 (55.5) |
Yes | 7112 (48.7) | 1248 (42.8) | 1551 (53.2) | 1291 (44.2) | 1409 (48.3) | 1462 (50.1) | 1298 (44.5) |
Physical activity status, METs-h/week | 103.9 ± 84.0 | 89.5 ± 79.6 | 102.4 ± 83.0 | 118.4 ± 86.7 | 90.7 ± 76.1 | 114.3 ± 88.1 | 103.9 ± 81.9 |
Total energy intake, kcal/d 2 | 2106.2 ± 13.4 | 2105.8 ± 17.9 | 2106.8 ± 12.5 | 2105.8 ± 10.5 | 2104.8 ± 19.8 | 2106.3 ± 10.8 | 2107.4 ± 11.0 |
Total carbohydrate intake, % energy 2 | 55.1 ± 11.0 | 51.4 ± 12.2 | 54.4 ± 9.9 | 60.0 ± 10.2 | 48.8 ± 11.8 | 56.8 ± 10.4 | 58.8 ± 9.4 |
Total dietary fiber intake, g/d 2 | 11.6 ± 5.5 | 12.5 ± 8.2 | 11.1 ± 4.5 | 11.5 ± 4.2 | 18.2 ± 7.6 | 11.0 ± 2.1 | 6.7 ± 1.5 |
Fat intake, % energy 2 | 31.9 ± 10.3 | 34.6 ± 11.2 | 32.7 ± 9.5 | 27.6 ± 10.1 | 36.5 ± 11.3 | 30.4 ± 9.9 | 29.2 ± 8.9 |
Cholesterol intake, mg/d 2 | 153.3 ± 135.5 | 190.3 ± 152.5 | 158.6 ± 135.6 | 109.6 ± 125.7 | 171.6 ± 137.9 | 138.4 ± 133.4 | 155.7 ± 130.1 |
PUFA to SFA ratio 2 | 1.2 ± 0.7 | 1.2 ± 0.7 | 1.2 ± 0.6 | 1.4 ± 0.7 | 1.3 ± 0.6 | 1.4 ± 0.7 | 1.1 ± 0.6 |
Protein intake, % energy 2 | 12.2 ± 2.5 | 13.1 ± 3.3 | 12.0 ± 2.2 | 11.9 ± 2.0 | 13.5 ± 3.1 | 12.1 ± 2.0 | 11.4 ± 2.4 |
Dietary GI 2 | 69.9 (65.2, 73.8) | 60.8 (57.9, 62.5) | 69.9 (69.2, 70.7) | 77.0 (75.8, 78.4) | 66.6 (61.5, 71.0) | 71.8 (67.9, 75.2) | 69.0 (63.6, 73.3) |
CF 2 | 27.8 (21.5, 35.6) | 25.1 (16.5, 39.3) | 27.9 (21.9, 35.3) | 28.6 (24.4, 35.0) | 16.3 (13.4, 18.3) | 27.8 (26.6, 29.0) | 45.1 (41.2, 51.8) |
CQI | 8.0 (7.0, 10.0) | 10.0 (9.0, 12.0) | 8.0 (7.0, 10.0) | 7.0 (5.0, 8.0) | 11.0 (9.0, 12.0) | 9.0 (7.0, 10.0) | 7.0 (6.0, 8.0) |
Variables | HR (95% CI) of Quintiles of Carbohydrate Quality Indicators | P-Trend | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | Q5 | ||
Dietary GI | ||||||
n | 2918 | 2918 | 2918 | 2918 | 2918 | |
range | (18.5, 63.9) | (63.9, 68.3) | (68.3, 71.4) | (71.4, 74.8) | (74.8, 88.2) | |
Median | 60.8 | 66.3 | 69.9 | 73.0 | 77.0 | |
Cases (incidence rate, ‰ person-year) | 184 (8.95) | 224 (7.39) | 216 (6.35) | 212 (6.47) | 217 (8.37) | |
Model 1 2 | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.66 (0.54, 0.80) | 0.56 (0.46, 0.68) | 0.58 (0.47, 0.70) | 0.85 (0.70, 1.04) | 0.15 |
Model 2 2 | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.63 (0.52, 0.78) | 0.54 (0.44, 0.66) | 0.52 (0.42, 0.64) | 0.73 (0.58, 0.91) | 0.0023 |
Model 3 2 | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.66 (0.54, 0.81) | 0.57 (0.46, 0.70) | 0.54 (0.43, 0.67) | 0.72 (0.57, 0.91) | 0.0024 |
Model 1 3 | 1.74 (1.42, 2.12) | 1.14 (0.95, 1.38) | 0.97 (0.80, 1.17) | 1.00 (Ref) | 1.48 (1.23, 1.79) | 0.15 |
Model 2 3 | 1.93 (1.56, 2.39) | 1.22 (1.00, 1.49) | 1.04 (0.86, 1.27) | 1.00 (Ref) | 1.40 (1.15, 1.71) | 0.0023 |
Model 3 3 | 1.86 (1.49, 2.33) | 1.24 (1.01, 1.51) | 1.06 (0.87, 1.29) | 1.00 (Ref) | 1.34 (1.10, 1.64) | 0.0024 |
CF | ||||||
n | 2918 | 2918 | 2918 | 2918 | 2918 | |
range | (3.1, 20.0) | (20.0, 25.4) | (25.4, 30.4) | (30.4, 38.2) | (38.2, 221.2) | |
Median | 16.3 | 22.9 | 27.8 | 33.6 | 45.1 | |
Cases (incidence rate, ‰ person-year) | 171 (7.74) | 206 (6.80) | 230 (7.08) | 213 (6.59) | 233 (8.81) | |
Model 1 2 | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.70 (0.56, 0.87) | 0.63 (0.48, 0.81) | 0.49 (0.35, 0.70) | 0.59 (0.38, 0.90) | 0.0071 |
Model 2 2 | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.70 (0.56, 0.88) | 0.69 (0.53, 0.91) | 0.62 (0.44, 0.89) | 0.95 (0.61, 1.48) | 0.48 |
Model 3 2 | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.73 (0.58, 0.91) | 0.71 (0.54, 0.94) | 0.65 (0.46, 0.94) | 1.02 (0.66, 1.59) | 0.70 |
Model 1 3 | 2.03 (1.44, 2.86) | 1.41 (1.07, 1.87) | 1.27 (1.02, 1.57) | 1.00 (Ref) | 1.19 (0.96, 1.47) | 0.0071 |
Model 2 3 | 1.61 (1.13, 2.30) | 1.13 (0.84, 1.51) | 1.11 (0.89, 1.39) | 1.00 (Ref) | 1.53 (1.23, 1.91) | 0.48 |
Model 3 3 | 1.53 (1.07, 2.19) | 1.11 (0.82, 1.49) | 1.09 (0.87, 1.36) | 1.00 (Ref) | 1.56 (1.26, 1.95) | 0.70 |
CQI | ||||||
n | 2683 | 1980 | 2661 | 3772 | 3494 | |
range | (4.0, 6.0) | (7.0, 7.0) | (8.0, 8.0) | (9.0, 10.0) | (11.0, 20.0) | |
Median | 5.0 | 7.0 | 8.0 | 9.0 | 12.0 | |
Cases (incidence rate, %) | 182 (8.28) | 144 (7.03) | 182 (7.04) | 291 (7.03) | 254 (7.08) | |
Model 1 2 | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.84 (0.67, 1.05) | 0.88 (0.72, 1.08) | 0.91 (0.76, 1.10) | 0.85 (0.70, 1.03) | 0.83 |
Model 2 2 | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.89 (0.71, 1.12) | 0.85 (0.69, 1.05) | 0.89 (0.74, 1.08) | 0.79 (0.64, 0.96) | 0.35 |
Model 3 2 | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.90 (0.71, 1.14) | 0.83 (0.63, 1.11) | 0.87 (0.62, 1.24) | 0.77 (0.50, 1.19) | 0.30 |
Variables | n | Cases (Incidence Rate, ‰ Person-Year) | HR (95% CI) of Quintiles of Carbohydrate Quality Indicators | P- Trend | P- Interaction | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | Q5 | |||||
Dietary GI | |||||||||
Age, y | |||||||||
<60 | 11,881 | 787 (6.38) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.70 (0.55, 0.89) | 0.62 (0.48, 0.78) | 0.56 (0.43, 0.72) | 0.74 (0.57, 0.97) | 0.0162 | 0.47 |
≥60 | 2709 | 266 (13.13) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.67 (0.46, 0.97) | 0.42 (0.28, 0.64) | 0.53 (0.35, 0.81) | 0.69 (0.44, 1.08) | 0.0311 | |
Sex | |||||||||
Male | 7402 | 517 (6.92) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.62 (0.45, 0.85) | 0.60 (0.44, 0.82) | 0.54 (0.39, 0.75) | 0.77 (0.55, 1.09) | 0.18 | 0.56 |
Female | 7188 | 536 (7.77) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.67 (0.51, 0.90) | 0.48 (0.36, 0.66) | 0.50 (0.37, 0.69) | 0.60 (0.43, 0.84) | 0.0007 | |
BMI, kg/m2 | |||||||||
<24.0 | 9313 | 423 (4.51) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.77 (0.55, 1.07) | 0.66 (0.47, 0.93) | 0.50 (0.34, 0.72) | 0.94 (0.65, 1.36) | 0.22 | 0.0259 |
≥24.0 | 5277 | 630 (12.62) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.56 (0.43, 0.74) | 0.47 (0.36, 0.62) | 0.48 (0.36, 0.64) | 0.52 (0.38, 0.71) | 0.0002 | |
Baseline hypertension | |||||||||
No | 11,495 | 683 (5.80) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.71 (0.55, 0.93) | 0.66 (0.50, 0.86) | 0.53 (0.40, 0.71) | 0.72 (0.53, 0.97) | 0.0116 | 0.52 |
Yes | 3095 | 370 (14.26) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.69 (0.47, 1.00) | 0.49 (0.34, 0.72) | 0.56 (0.38, 0.84) | 0.69 (0.46, 1.04) | 0.0453 | |
Urbanization index, median | |||||||||
<69.46 | 7293 | 491 (5.86) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.76 (0.47, 1.24) | 0.56 (0.34, 0.91) | 0.43 (0.26, 0.70) | 0.45 (0.27, 0.76) | 0.0004 | 0.0068 |
≥69.46 | 7297 | 562 (9.40) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.58 (0.38, 0.88) | 0.56 (0.37, 0.86) | 0.51 (0.32, 0.81) | 1.16 (0.69, 1.96) | 0.75 | |
Education level | |||||||||
Primary or lower | 6860 | 618 (8.22) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.85 (0.55, 1.32) | 0.54 (0.35, 0.83) | 0.46 (0.29, 0.73) | 0.54 (0.33, 0.88) | 0.0016 | 0.29 |
Middle or above | 7730 | 435 (6.35) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.66 (0.41, 1.05) | 0.70 (0.43, 1.14) | 0.53 (0.32, 0.88) | 1.02 (0.59, 1.76) | 0.72 | |
Dietary PUFA: SFA, median | |||||||||
<1.15 | 7295 | 479 (6.75) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.66 (0.49, 0.88) | 0.62 (0.46, 0.84) | 0.64 (0.47, 0.89) | 1.06 (0.74, 1.51) | 0.74 | 0.0069 |
≥1.15 | 7295 | 574 (7.90) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.73 (0.53, 0.99) | 0.58 (0.42, 0.80) | 0.46 (0.33, 0.63) | 0.55 (0.40, 0.76) | <0.0001 | |
CF | |||||||||
Age, y | |||||||||
<60 | 11,881 | 787 (6.38) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.84 (0.64, 1.09) | 0.78 (0.56, 1.08) | 0.74 (0.48, 1.14) | 1.31 (0.77, 2.22) | 0.64 | 0.33 |
≥60 | 2709 | 266 (13.13) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.47 (0.31, 0.73) | 0.46 (0.28, 0.77) | 0.41 (0.21, 0.79) | 0.42 (0.19, 0.96) | 0.0247 | |
Sex | |||||||||
Male | 7402 | 517 (6.92) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.71 (0.51, 0.99) | 0.62 (0.41, 0.94) | 0.63 (0.37, 1.09) | 0.85 (0.43, 1.67) | 0.48 | 0.68 |
Female | 7188 | 536 (7.77) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.74 (0.53, 1.01) | 0.82 (0.56, 1.20) | 0.68 (0.41, 1.12) | 1.19 (0.65, 2.19) | 0.84 | |
BMI, kg/m2 | |||||||||
<24.0 | 9313 | 423 (4.51) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.79 (0.54, 1.15) | 0.52 (0.33, 0.82) | 0.58 (0.32, 1.03) | 0.60 (0.29, 1.23) | 0.11 | 0.0081 |
≥24.0 | 5277 | 630 (12.62) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.66 (0.50, 0.88) | 0.79 (0.56, 1.13) | 0.66 (0.41, 1.06) | 1.41 (0.80, 2.49) | 0.52 | |
Baseline hypertension | |||||||||
No | 11,495 | 683 (5.80) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.75 (0.57, 1.00) | 0.68 (0.48, 0.98) | 0.62 (0.38, 0.99) | 0.88 (0.48, 1.61) | 0.41 | 0.48 |
Yes | 3095 | 370 (14.26) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.71 (0.48, 1.07) | 0.73 (0.46, 1.17) | 0.60 (0.32, 1.11) | 1.08 (0.52, 2.23) | 0.90 | |
Urbanization index, median | |||||||||
<69.46 | 7293 | 491 (5.86) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.69 (0.48, 1.00) | 0.60 (0.37, 0.97) | 0.57 (0.30, 1.09) | 0.97 (0.43, 2.18) | 0.88 | 0.44 |
≥69.46 | 7297 | 562 (9.40) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.69 (0.51, 0.94) | 0.79 (0.55, 1.13) | 0.70 (0.44, 1.12) | 0.86 (0.49, 1.52) | 0.51 | |
Education level | |||||||||
Primary or lower | 6860 | 618 (8.22) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.63 (0.46, 0.86) | 0.60 (0.41, 0.89) | 0.52 (0.31, 0.86) | 0.72 (0.38, 1.35) | 0.27 | 0.32 |
Middle or above | 7730 | 435 (6.35) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.81 (0.58, 1.15) | 0.88 (0.58, 1.33) | 0.82 (0.48, 1.41) | 1.35 (0.70, 2.60) | 0.63 | |
Dietary PUFA: SFA, median | |||||||||
<1.15 | 7295 | 479 (6.75) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.84 (0.59, 1.20) | 0.80 (0.52, 1.23) | 0.69 (0.40, 1.18) | 0.93 (0.48, 1.81) | 0.64 | 0.40 |
≥1.15 | 7295 | 574 (7.90) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.63 (0.47, 0.86) | 0.65 (0.44, 0.96) | 0.57 (0.33, 0.96) | 1.08 (0.57, 2.06) | 0.75 | |
CQI | |||||||||
Age, y | |||||||||
<60 | 11,881 | 787 (6.38) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.66 (0.51, 0.86) | 0.71 (0.56, 0.91) | 0.69 (0.55, 0.86) | 0.63 (0.50, 0.80) | 0.0015 | 0.0324 |
≥60 | 2709 | 266 (13.13) | 1.00 (Ref) | 1.48 (0.96, 2.26) | 0.97 (0.63, 1.50) | 1.23 (0.83, 1.80) | 1.12 (0.75, 1.66) | 0.82 | |
Sex | |||||||||
Male | 7402 | 517 (6.92) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.71 (0.50, 1.00) | 0.68 (0.49, 0.94) | 0.74 (0.55, 0.99) | 0.64 (0.47, 0.86) | 0.0214 | 0.12 |
Female | 7188 | 536 (7.77) | 1.00 (Ref) | 1.14 (0.83, 1.57) | 1.04 (0.76, 1.42) | 0.99 (0.75, 1.32) | 0.91 (0.68, 1.21) | 0.29 | |
BMI, kg/m2 | |||||||||
<24.0 | 9313 | 423 (4.51) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.99 (0.70, 1.40) | 0.90 (0.64, 1.26) | 1.04 (0.77, 1.42) | 0.65 (0.46, 0.91) | 0.0400 | 0.07 |
≥24.0 | 5277 | 630 (12.62) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.87 (0.64, 1.18) | 0.78 (0.58, 1.04) | 0.75 (0.58, 0.98) | 0.85 (0.65, 1.10) | 0.20 | |
Baseline hypertension | |||||||||
No | 11,495 | 683 (5.80) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.83 (0.62, 1.11) | 0.91 (0.69, 1.19) | 0.91 (0.70, 1.17) | 0.74 (0.57, 0.96) | 0.08 | 0.47 |
Yes | 3095 | 370 (14.26) | 1.00 (Ref) | 1.06 (0.71, 1.58) | 0.71 (0.48, 1.05) | 0.87 (0.61, 1.23) | 0.82 (0.58, 1.17) | 0.22 | |
Urbanization index, median | |||||||||
<69.46 | 7293 | 491 (5.86) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.77 (0.54, 1.09) | 0.71 (0.52, 0.99) | 0.81 (0.61, 1.09) | 0.67 (0.49, 0.90) | 0.0356 | 0.94 |
≥69.46 | 7297 | 562 (9.40) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.89 (0.65, 1.22) | 0.84 (0.63, 1.14) | 0.81 (0.61, 1.07) | 0.77 (0.58, 1.03) | 0.07 | |
Education level | |||||||||
Primary or lower | 6860 | 618 (8.22) | 1.00 (Ref) | 1.14 (0.84, 1.54) | 1.01 (0.76, 1.36) | 1.08 (0.83, 1.42) | 0.94 (0.72, 1.24) | 0.055 | 0.0069 |
Middle or above | 7730 | 435 (6.35) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.61 (0.42, 0.88) | 0.57 (0.40, 0.79) | 0.56 (0.41, 0.76) | 0.46 (0.34, 0.64) | <0.0001 | |
Dietary PUFA: SFA, median | |||||||||
<1.15 | 7295 | 479 (6.75) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.98 (0.71, 1.35) | 0.96 (0.71, 1.30) | 0.81 (0.60, 1.08) | 0.69 (0.51, 0.94) | 0.0083 | 0.38 |
≥1.15 | 7295 | 574 (7.90) | 1.00 (Ref) | 0.87 (0.61, 1.23) | 0.79 (0.57, 1.10) | 0.96 (0.72, 1.28) | 0.82 (0.61, 1.10) | 0.43 |
Carbohydrate Quality Indicators | Inflection Point (95% CI) | Group | HR (95% CI) | P | P-log Likelihood Ratio |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dietary GI | 72.85 (71.40, 74.05) | <72.85 | 0.95 (0.93, 0.96) | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
≥72.85 | 1.11 (1.07, 1.16) | <0.0001 | |||
CF | 20.55 (17.92, 21.91) | <20.55 | 0.94 (0.91, 0.96) | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
≥20.55 | 1.03 (1.02, 1.04) | <0.0001 |
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Cui, Z.; Wu, M.; Liu, K.; Wang, Y.; Kang, T.; Meng, S.; Meng, H. Associations between Conventional and Emerging Indicators of Dietary Carbohydrate Quality and New-Onset Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Chinese Adults. Nutrients 2023, 15, 647. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15030647
Cui Z, Wu M, Liu K, Wang Y, Kang T, Meng S, Meng H. Associations between Conventional and Emerging Indicators of Dietary Carbohydrate Quality and New-Onset Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Chinese Adults. Nutrients. 2023; 15(3):647. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15030647
Chicago/Turabian StyleCui, Zhixin, Man Wu, Ke Liu, Yin Wang, Tong Kang, Shuangli Meng, and Huicui Meng. 2023. "Associations between Conventional and Emerging Indicators of Dietary Carbohydrate Quality and New-Onset Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Chinese Adults" Nutrients 15, no. 3: 647. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15030647