Association between Coffee Consumption, Caffeine Intake, and Metabolic Syndrome Severity in Patients with Self-Reported Rheumatoid Arthritis: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2018
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Assessment of MetS Severity Based on Z-Score Data
2.3. Assessment of Coffee, Decaffeinated Coffee and Caffeine Intake
2.4. Covariates
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Demographic Information and Clinical Features
3.2. Association between MetS Z-Score and Coffee, Decaffeinated Coffee, and Caffeine Intake
3.3. Association between Prevalence of MetS and Coffee Intake
3.4. Subgroup Analysis
3.5. Sensitivity Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characters | Total (n = 1094) | Nondrinker (n = 457) | 0–2 Cups/day (n = 283) | >2 Cups/day (n = 354) | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | 60.87 ± 0.49 | 61.59 ± 0.79 | 61.63 ± 1.06 | 59.67 ± 0.78 | 0.065 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 30.2 ± 0.26 | 30.91 ± 0.46 | 29.83 ± 0.49 | 29.7 ± 0.41 | 0.03 |
PIR | 2.92 ± 0.06 | 2.87 ± 0.09 | 2.81 ± 0.13 | 3.02 ± 0.09 | 0.16 |
Energy (kcal) | 1952.68 ± 29.43 | 1904.89 ± 41.34 | 1918.5 ± 63.08 | 2022.41 ± 51.92 | 0.06 |
MetS Z-score | 0.41 ± 0.04 | 0.51 ± 0.06 | 0.41 ± 0.07 | 0.32 ± 0.06 | 0.026 |
>0 | 66.73 (0.31–0.36) | 68.1 (0.64–0.72) | 64.7 (0.59–0.70) | 66.7 (0.62–0.71) | |
<0 | 33.27 (0.64–0.67) | 31.95 (0.28–0.36) | 35.3 (0.30–0.41) | 33.3 (0.29–0.38) | |
SBP (mmHg) | 127.24 ± 0.73 | 129.31 ± 1.12 | 128.01 ± 1.52 | 124.66 ± 1.2 | 0.003 |
Insulin (μU/mL) | 13.49 ± 0.54 | 14.36 ± 1.03 | 13.4 ± 1.06 | 12.65 ± 0.72 | 0.2 |
Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 5.15 ± 0.04 | 5.1 ± 0.07 | 5.17 ± 0.09 | 5.18 ± 0.07 | 0.53 |
HDL (mg/dL) | 55.16 ± 0.61 | 55.7 ± 1.04 | 53.91 ± 1.13 | 55.36 ± 0.97 | 0.35 |
Fasting glucose (mg/dL) | 109.04 ± 1.02 | 111.06 ± 1.96 | 108.73 ± 1.86 | 107.17 ± 1.39 | 0.19 |
Triglyceride (mg/dL) | 141.48 ± 3.84 | 137.73 ± 4.48 | 141.37 ± 7.47 | 145.37 ± 7.76 | 0.52 |
HOMA-IR | 71.83 ± 4.56 | 80.1 ± 10.02 | 69.94 ± 6.85 | 64.54 ± 4.65 | 0.15 |
Sex | 0.001 | ||||
Male | 39 (0.36–0.42) | 31.1 (0.26–0.37) | 39.6 (0.32–0.48) | 43 (0.37–0.49) | |
Female | 61 (0.58–0.64) | 68.9 (0.63–0.74) | 60.4 (0.52–0.68) | 57 (0.51–0.63) | |
MetS | 0.75 | ||||
With MetS | 15.1 (0.13–0.18) | 14.1 (0.11–0.19) | 15.8 (0.11–0.23) | 15.7 (0.12–0.21) | |
Without MetS | 84.9 (0.82–0.87) | 85.9 (0.81–0.89) | 84.2 (0.77–0.89) | 84.3 (0.79–0.88) | |
Race | <0.001 | ||||
Mexican American | 10.15 (0.08–0.12) | 8.75 (0.06–0.12) | 12.01 (0.09–0.16) | 10.45 (0.08–0.14) | |
Other Hispanic | 7.13 (0.06–0.09) | 5.03 (0.03–0.07) | 13.07 (0.1–0.18) | 5.08 (0.03–0.08) | |
Non-Hispanic White | 61.33 (0.58–0.64) | 55.36 (0.51–0.6) | 52.65 (0.47–0.58) | 75.99 (0.71–0.8) | |
Non-Hispanic Black | 21.39 (0.19–0.24) | 30.85 (0.27–0.35) | 22.26 (0.18–0.27) | 8.47 (0.06–0.12) | |
Education | 0.44 | ||||
Less Than 9th Grade | 11.06 (0.09–0.13) | 10.5 (0.08–0.14) | 14.13 (0.11–0.19) | 9.32 (0.07–0.13) | |
9–11th Grade | 15.27 (0.13–0.18) | 15.1 (0.12–0.19) | 17.31 (0.13–0.22) | 13.84 (0.11–0.18) | |
High School | 24.59 (0.22–0.27) | 26.26 (0.22–0.3) | 21.91 (0.17–0.27) | 24.58 (0.2–0.29) | |
Some College | 28.43 (0.26–0.31) | 27.79 (0.24–0.32) | 27.21 (0.22–0.33) | 30.23 (0.26–0.35) | |
College Graduate | 20.66 (0.18–0.23) | 20.35 (0.17–0.24) | 19.43 (0.15–0.24) | 22.03 (0.18–0.27) | |
Alcoholic > 4 drinks | 0.01 | ||||
Yes | 78 (0.75–0.81) | 79 (0.74–0.83) | 78 (0.70–0.84) | 78 (0.72–0.83) | |
No | 6 (0.04–0.08) | 4 (0.02–0.07) | 4 (0.02–0.08) | 9 (0.06–0.14) | |
Not recorded | 16 (0.13–0.19) | 17 (0.14–0.22) | 18 (0.12–0.25) | 13 (0.10–0.18) | |
Glucocorticoid | 0.003 | ||||
YES | 0.4 (0.00–0.02) | 0.4 (0.00–0.03) | - | 1 (0.00–0.04) | |
No | 97.6 (0.96–0.99) | 98.8 (0.97–1.00) | 99 (0.98–1.00) | 95 (0.92–0.97) | |
Not recorded | 2 (0.01–0.03) | 0.8 (0.00–0.02) | 1 (0.00–0.02) | 4 (0.02–0.07) | |
Smoke | <0.001 | ||||
Yes | 47.26 (0.44–0.5) | 45.73 (0.41–0.5) | 43.82 (0.38–0.5) | 68.36 (0.63–0.73) | |
No | 52.56 (0.5–0.56) | 54.27 (0.5–0.59) | 55.48 (0.5–0.61) | 31.64 (0.27–0.37) | |
Not recorded | 0.18 (0–0.01) | - | 0.71 (0–0.03) | - |
Characteristic | Model 1 * | Model 2 ** | Model 3 *** | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coefficient (95% CI) | p | Coefficient (95% CI) | p | Coefficient (95% CI) | p | |
Coffee (ref. = nondrinkers) | ||||||
0–2 cups | −0.09 (−0.28–0.09) | 0.3 | −0.10 (−0.29–0.08) | 0.29 | −0.07 (−0.22–0.07) | 0.33 |
>2 cups | −0.19 (−0.35 to −0.02) | 0.03 | −0.17 (−0.33 to −0.01) | 0.04 | −0.13 (−0.24 to −0.01) | 0.04 |
Decaffeinated Coffee (ref. = nondrinkers) | ||||||
0–2 cups | −0.07 (−0.30–0.15) | 0.52 | −0.07 (−0.30–0.16) | 0.53 | −0.01 (−0.19–0.16) | 0.89 |
>2 cups | −0.05 (−0.35–0.25) | 0.75 | −0.05 (−0.34–0.23) | 0.73 | −0.15 (−0.36–0.05) | 0.15 |
Caffeine intake (ref. = 0–100 mg) | ||||||
100–200 mg | 0.08 (−0.10–0.25) | 0.40 | 0.12 (−0.06–0.30) | 0.2 | 0.02 (−0.12–0.15) | 0.79 |
>200 mg | −0.07 (−0.24–0.10) | 0.41 | −0.02 (−0.19–0.15) | 0.8 | −0.06 (−0.19–0.06) | 0.31 |
Components | 0–2 Cups/day (Ref. = Nondrinker) | >2 Cups/day (Ref. = Nondrinker) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coefficient (95% CI) | p | Coefficient (95% CI) | p | |
BMI (kg/m2) * | −0.7 (−1.37 to −0.09) | 0.03 | −0.7 (−1.30 to −0.10) | 0.02 |
HDL (mg/dL) | −1.80 (−4.81–1.22) | 0.24 | −0.34 (−3.14–2.46) | 0.81 |
Fasting glucose (mg/dL) | −0.13 (−0.42–0.17) | 0.4 | −0.22 (−0.48–0.05) | 0.11 |
Triglyceride (mg/dL) | 3.65 (−13.47–20.76) | 0.68 | 7.64 (−9.96–25.25) | 0.39 |
SBP (mmHg) | −1.38 (−4.89 −2.14) | 0.44 | −3.58 (−6.69 to −0.46) | 0.02 |
Characteristic | High-Risk Group (n = 730) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coffee | Decaffeinated Coffee | Caffeine | ||||
Coefficient (95% CI) | p | Coefficient (95% CI) | p | Coefficient (95% CI) | p | |
Age | 0.00 (−0.01–0.00) | 0.44 | 0.00 (−0.01–0.00) | 0.56 | 0.00 (−0.01–0.00) | 0.35 |
Education (ref. = Less Than 9th Grade) | ||||||
9–11th Grade | −0.12 (−0.48–0.23) | 0.5 | −0.13 (−0.49–0.22) | 0.46 | −0.11 (−0.47–0.24) | 0.53 |
High School | −0.20 (−0.53–0.12) | 0.23 | −0.22 (−0.55–0.10) | 0.18 | −0.20 (−0.53–0.12) | 0.21 |
Some College | −0.22 (−0.56–0.11) | 0.19 | −0.24 (−0.58–0.10) | 0.17 | −0.22 (−0.55–0.11) | 0.2 |
College | −0.19 (−0.53–0.15) | 0.28 | −0.20 (−0.54–0.15) | 0.26 | −0.18 (−0.52–0.16) | 0.29 |
PIR | −0.08 (−0.13 to −0.03) | 0.002 | −0.08 (−0.13 to −0.03) | <0.001 | −0.08 (−0.13 to −0.03) | 0.002 |
Energy (kcal) | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 0.25 | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 0.19 | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 0.25 |
LDL (mg/dL) | −0.03 (−0.10–0.04) | 0.43 | −0.03 (−0.10–0.04) | 0.41 | −0.03 (−0.10–0.04) | 0.42 |
Insulin (μU/mL) | 0.01 (0.00–0.02) | 0.02 | 0.01 (0.00–0.02) | 0.01 | 0.01 (0.00–0.02) | 0.01 |
Waist Circumference (cm) | 0.02 (0.01–0.02) | <0.001 | 0.02 (0.01–0.02) | <0.001 | 0.02 (0.01–0.02) | <0.001 |
Smoke (ref. = Yes) | ||||||
No | −0.07 (−0.19–0.05) | 0.26 | −0.03 (−0.16–0.09) | 0.6 | −0.05 (−0.17–0.08) | 0.45 |
Not recorded | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Alcoholic > 4 drinks (ref. = Yes) | ||||||
No | −0.20 (−0.49–0.09) | 0.97 | −0.21 (−0.49–0.08) | 0.16 | −0.20 (−0.48–0.08) | 0.16 |
Not recorded | 0.00 (−0.18–0.19) | 0.18 | 0.01 (−0.17–0.20) | 0.89 | 0.01 (−0.16–0.19) | 0.88 |
Glucocorticoid (ref. = No) | ||||||
YES | 0.24 (−0.27–0.75) | 0.36 | 0.20 (−0.23–0.62) | 0.36 | 0.21 (−0.25–0.66) | 0.37 |
Not recorded | −0.30 (−0.55 to −0.06) | 0.01 | −0.36 (−0.59 to −0.12) | <0.001 | −0.34 (−0.59 to −0.09) | 0.01 |
Coffee (ref. = nondrinkers) | ||||||
0–2 cups | −0.04 (−0.21–0.13) | 0.66 | - | - | - | - |
>2 cups | −0.16 (−0.31 to −0.01) | 0.03 | - | - | - | - |
Decaffeinated Coffee (ref. = nondrinkers) | ||||||
0–2 cups | - | - | −0.09 (−0.28–0.09) | 0.31 | - | - |
>2 cups | - | - | −0.04 (−0.27–0.19) | 0.73 | - | - |
Caffeine intake (ref. = 0–100 mg) | ||||||
100–200 mg | - | - | - | - | 0.01 (−0.15–0.17) | 0.89 |
>200 mg | - | - | - | - | −0.08 (−0.23–0.06) | 0.24 |
Characteristic | Low-Risk Group (n = 364) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coffee | Decaffeinated Coffee | Caffeine | ||||
Coefficient (95% CI) | p | Coefficient (95% CI) | p | Coefficient (95% CI) | p | |
Age | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 0.82 | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 0.92 | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 0.55 |
Education (ref.= Less Than 9th Grade) | ||||||
9–11th Grade | −0.05 (−0.23–0.12) | 0.54 | −0.05 (−0.22–0.11) | 0.53 | −0.08 (−0.25–0.10) | 0.38 |
High School | −0.02 (−0.19–0.15) | 0.83 | −0.01 (−0.18–0.15) | 0.89 | −0.02 (−0.19–0.15) | 0.83 |
Some College | −0.11 (−0.29–0.07) | 0.22 | −0.10 (−0.27–0.06) | 0.22 | −0.09 (−0.27–0.08) | 0.3 |
College | −0.19 (−0.53–0.15) | 0.53 | −0.05 (−0.23–0.12) | 0.54 | −0.06 (−0.25–0.12) | 0.49 |
PIR | −0.03 (−0.06–0.00) | 0.09 | −0.03 (−0.06–0.01) | 0.15 | −0.03 (−0.06–0.01) | 0.14 |
Energy (kcal) | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 0.31 | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 0.26 | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 0.21 |
LDL (mg/dL) | 0.07 (0.02–0.13) | 0.01 | 0.07 (0.02–0.12) | 0.01 | 0.07 (0.02–0.13) | 0.01 |
Insulin (μU/mL) | 0.02 (0.01–0.03) | <0.001 | 0.02 (0.01–0.03) | <0.001 | 0.02 (0.01–0.03) | <0.001 |
Waist Circumference (cm) | 0.01 (0.01–0.02) | <0.001 | 0.01 (0.01–0.01) | <0.001 | 0.01 (0.01–0.01) | <0.001 |
Smoke (ref. = Yes) | ||||||
No | −0.02 (−0.12–0.07) | 0.62 | −0.02 (−0.12–0.08) | 0.63 | −0.05 (−0.14–0.05) | 0.31 |
Not recorded | 0.34 (0.05–0.63) | 0.02 | 0.24 (−0.05–0.53) | 0.1 | 0.27 (−0.03–0.57) | 0.08 |
Alcoholic > 4 drinks (ref. = Yes) | ||||||
No | 0.00 (−0.13–0.12) | 0.15 | −0.17 (−0.41–0.07) | 0.17 | −0.12 (−0.35–0.11) | 0.31 |
Not recorded | −0.18 (−0.42–0.06) | 0.96 | 0.00 (−0.13–0.12) | 0.95 | −0.01 (−0.13–0.12) | 0.92 |
Glucocorticoid (ref. = No) | ||||||
YES | 0.91 (0.73–1.10) | <0.001 | −0.89 (−1.06-−0.72) | 0.53 | −0.81 (−1.00 to−0.61) | <0.001 |
Not recorded | 0.97 (0.68–1.27) | <0.001 | 0.08 (−0.17–0.32) | <0.001 | 0.07 (−0.15–0.30) | 0.54 |
Coffee (ref. =nondrinkers) | ||||||
0–2 cups | −0.12 (−0.23 to −0.01) | 0.03 | - | - | ||
>2 cups | 0.00 (−0.12–0.12) | 0.97 | - | - | - | - |
Decaffeinated Coffee (ref. = nondrinkers) | ||||||
0–2 cups | - | - | −0.12 (−0.31–0.07) | 0.22 | - | - |
>2 cups | - | - | −0.02 (−0.20–0.16) | 0.81 | - | - |
Caffeine intake (ref. = 0–100 mg) | ||||||
100–200 mg | - | - | - | - | 0.04 (−0.07–0.15) | 0.45 |
>200 mg | - | - | - | - | −0.08 (−0.21–0.04) | 0.19 |
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Wang, S.; Han, Y.; Zhao, H.; Han, X.; Yin, Y.; Wu, J.; Zhang, Y.; Zeng, X. Association between Coffee Consumption, Caffeine Intake, and Metabolic Syndrome Severity in Patients with Self-Reported Rheumatoid Arthritis: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2018. Nutrients 2023, 15, 107. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15010107
Wang S, Han Y, Zhao H, Han X, Yin Y, Wu J, Zhang Y, Zeng X. Association between Coffee Consumption, Caffeine Intake, and Metabolic Syndrome Severity in Patients with Self-Reported Rheumatoid Arthritis: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2018. Nutrients. 2023; 15(1):107. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15010107
Chicago/Turabian StyleWang, Shuolin, Yingdong Han, He Zhao, Xinxin Han, Yue Yin, Juan Wu, Yun Zhang, and Xuejun Zeng. 2023. "Association between Coffee Consumption, Caffeine Intake, and Metabolic Syndrome Severity in Patients with Self-Reported Rheumatoid Arthritis: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2018" Nutrients 15, no. 1: 107. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15010107