Role of Dairy Foods, Fish, White Meat, and Eggs in the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer: A Systematic Review of Observational Studies in 2018–2022
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Search Strategy
2.2. Review Process and Selection Criteria
2.3. Study Quality Assessment
2.4. Data Extraction
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Study Selection
3.2. Study Characteristics about Milk and Dairy Products
3.3. Dairy Products
3.3.1. Total Dairy Products in Overall and by Fat Content
3.3.2. Total Milk, Whole, and Low-Fat Milk
3.3.3. Yogurt and Other Fermented Dairy Products
3.3.4. Cheese
3.3.5. Other Dairy Products: Butter, Sugary Dairy Products, Cream, and Ice Cream
3.4. Study Characteristics about Fish, White Meat, and Eggs
3.5. Fish, White Meat, and Eggs
3.5.1. Fish
3.5.2. White Meat
3.5.3. Eggs
3.6. Strengths and Limitations
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Study, Year (Ref.) | Study Cohort, Country (Age, y) | No. Participants (M/W) | No. Incident Cases | Follow-Up Length, y | Exposure | HR (95%CI) | Adjustments to HR | NOS Quality Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bakken et al., 2018 [18] | Norway: NOWAC Cohort Study (median, 51) | 81,675 W | 872 CRC (617 CC, 255 RC) | 6 | Total milk: >240 g/day vs. never/seldom | CRC: 0.85 (0.69, 1.05) CC: 0.80 (0.62, 1.03) RC: 0.97 (0.67, 1.42) | Age as the time scale and adjusted for BMI, smoking, processed meat, red meat, hard white cheese, yogurt, fibre from foods, alcohol, and energy intake | 6 |
Barrubés et al., 2018 [19] | Spain: PREDIMED trial (55–80) | 7216 M&W | 97 CRC | 6 | Total dairy products: 564 g/day vs. 206 g/day | CRC: 0.55 (0.31, 0.99) | Stratified by recruitment centre. Adjusted for the intervention group, sex, age, leisure time PA, smoking status, family history of cancer, education level, history of diabetes, use of aspirin treatment, and cumulative average consumption of vegetables, fruits, legumes, cereals, fish, meat, olive oil and nuts, and alcohol | 7 |
Whole-fat dairy products: 114 g/day vs. 0 g/day | CRC: 1.01 (0.62, 1.64) | |||||||
Low-fat dairy products: 495 g/day vs. 67 g/day | CRC: 0.62 (0.36, 1,07) | |||||||
Total yogurt: 128 g/day vs. 8 g/day | CRC: 0.94 (0.56, 1.59) | |||||||
Low-fat yogurt: 122 g/day vs. 1 g/day | CRC: 1.06 (0.65, 1.73) | |||||||
Whole-fat yogurt. 45 g/day vs. 0 g/day | CRC: 0.86 (0.51, 1.46) | |||||||
Cheese: 44 g/day vs. 11 g/day | CRC: 1.23 (0.74, 2.06) | |||||||
Total milk: 449 g/day vs. 117 g/day | CRC: 0.63 (0.36, 1.10) | |||||||
Low-fat milk: 407 g/day vs. 15 g/day | CRC: 0.54 (0.32, 0.92) | |||||||
Whole milk: 60 g/day vs. 0 g/day | CRC: 1.06 (0.64, 1.75) | |||||||
Concentrated full-fat dairy products: 45 g/day vs. 11 g/day | CRC: 1.11 (0.66, 1.86) | |||||||
Sugar-enriched dairy products: 14 g/day vs. 0 g/day | CRC: 0.98 (0.55, 1.75) | |||||||
Fermented dairy products: 166 g/day vs. 36 g/day | CRC: 0.90 (0.53, 1.53) | |||||||
Vulcan et al., 2018 [20] | Sweden: Malmö Diet and Cancer Cohort Study (cases, 60,6+/−7,0; non-cases, 58,0+/−7,6) | 10,966/16,955 | 923 CRC (590 CC, 317 RC, 16 SCRC) | 18 | Total dairy products: Q5 vs. Q1 | CRC: 0.77 (0.62, 0.96) CC: 0.81 (0.61, 1.06) RC: 0.66 (0.46, 0.94) | Sex, age, method version, season, total energy, education, PA, and BMI | 6 |
Um et al., 2019 [21] | USA: Iowa Women’s Health Study (55–69) | 35,221 W | 1731 CRC (971 PCC, 760 DCC) | 26 | Total dairy products: Q5 vs. Q1 | PCC: 0.87 (0.69, 1.10) DCC: 0.69 (0.53, 0.90) | Age, family history of CRC, BMI, smoking, alcohol, PA, HRT use (W), total energy intake, vitamin D, magnesium, fruit and vegetable intake, red and processed meat intake, dietary oxidative balance score, and supplemental calcium | 7 |
Bradbury et al., 2020 [22] | UK: UK Biobank Cohort Study (40–69) | 219,329/256,252 | 2609 CRC | 5.7 | Milk: ≥300 mL/day vs. never | CRC: 0.93 (0.87, 1.01) | Stratified by age, sex, geographical region, and socio-economic status. Adjusted for education, smoking status, waist circumference, height, PA, alcohol intake, family history of CRC, aspirin or ibuprofen use, use of vitamin D and folate supplements, and for W: parity, menopause, OCA, and HRT use | 6 |
Cheese: ≥5 times/week vs. <once/week | CRC: 1.09 (0.96, 1.23) | |||||||
Michels et al. 2020 [23] | USA: NHS and HPFS (mean at baseline: M 52.3 and W 45.7) | 43,269/83,054 | 2666 CCR * (1965 CC, 579 RC) | 26 M, 32 W | Yogurt: never or <1 serving/mo vs. >1 servings/week | CRC: 0.89 (0.80, 1.00) CC: 0.87 (0.76, 0.99) PCC: 0.84 (0.70, 0.99) DCC: 0.91 (0.74, 1.12) RC: 0.95 (0.76, 1.21) | Age, 2-year follow-up cycle, family history of CRC, history of lower gastrointestinal endoscopy, BMI, height, PA, pack-years of smoking before age 30, current multivitamin use, regular aspirin or NSAIDs use, total caloric intake, alcohol consumption, and energy-adjusted intakes of folate, calcium, vitamin D, total fibre, unprocessed red meat, and processed meat, and for W: parity and age at first birth, menopausal status, age at menopause and HRT | 6 |
Nilsson et al., 2020 [24] | Sweden: VIP and MONICA (25–75) | 53,157/52,734 | 1381 CRC | 20 | Non-fermented milk: Q5 vs. Q1 | CRC (M): 0.87 (0.67, 1.14) CRC (W): 0.88 (0.68, 1.14) | Age, screening year, dairy product category, BMI, civil status, education level, PA in leisure time, smoking status, recruitment cohort (VIP or MONICA), and Qs of fruit and vegetables, alcohol, and energy intake | 8 |
Fermented milk: Q5 vs. Q1 | CRC (M): 0.98 (0.77, 1.25) CRC (W): 0.90 (0.70, 1.15) | |||||||
Butter: Q5 vs. Q1 | CRC (M): 0.99 (0.76, 1.28) CRC (W): 0.82 (0.62, 1.08) | |||||||
Cheese: Q5 vs. Q1 | CRC (M): 0.86 (0.67, 1.10) CRC (W): 0.82 (0.63, 1.07) | |||||||
Papadimitriou et al., 2021 [25] | Europe: EPIC (35–70) | 112,170/274,622 | 5069 CRC | 14.1 | Milk (standardized continuous variable) | CRC: 0.96 (0.93, 0.99) | Total energy intake, smoking status, BMI, PA, diabetes history, education status, age sex, and recruitment centre | 8 |
Cheese (standardized continuous variable) | CRC: 0.95 (0.92, 0.99) | |||||||
Yogurt (standardized continuous variable) | CRC: 0.98 (0.95, 1.01) | |||||||
Deschasaux-Tanguy et al. 2022 [26] | France: NutriNet-Santé Cohort Study (42.2+/−14.5) | 21,572/79,707 | 182 CRC | 10 | Total dairy products: continuous per 1 serving increment | CRC: 1.05 (0.93, 1.19) | Age, sex, height, BMI, baseline type 2 diabetes, prevalent hypertriglyceridemia, hypercholesterolemia, energy intake without alcohol, sugar intake, sodium intake, fruits and vegetables intake, whole foods, red and processed meat consumption, non-dairy calcium intake, non-dairy SFA intake, alcohol intake, number of 24 h dietary records, smoking status, educational level, PA and family history of cancer | 6 |
Milk: continuous per 1 serving increment | CRC: 0.92 (0.74, 1.15) | |||||||
Yogurt: continuous per 1 serving increment | CRC: 0.90 (0.67, 1.19) | |||||||
Cheese: continuous per 1 serving increment | CRC: 1.10 (0.9, 1.30) | |||||||
Fromage blanc: continuous per 1 serving increment | CRC: 1.39 (1.09, 1.77) | |||||||
Fermented dairy products: continuous per 1 serving increment | CRC: 1.10 (0.96, 1.27) | |||||||
Sugary dairy dessert: continuous per 1 serving increment | CRC: 1.58 (1.01, 2.46) | |||||||
Kakkoura et al. 2022 [27] | China: China Kadoorie Biobank Study (35–74) | 205,000/295,000 | 3350 CRC | 10.8 | Total dairy products: never/rarely intake | CRC: 1.00 (0.94, 1.06) | Stratified by age-at-risk, sex, and individual regions. Adjusted for education, income, smoking, alcohol consumption, total PA, family history of cancer, fresh fruit consumption, soy consumption, and BMI | 8 |
Monthly intake | CRC: 1.10 (1.00, 1.21) | |||||||
Regular intake | CRC: 1.09 (1.01, 1.18) | |||||||
Per 50 g/day of usual intake | CRC: 1.08 (1.00, 1.17) |
Study, Year (Ref.) | Country (Age, y) | No. Cases and Endpoint | Sex, No. of Cases (M/W) | No. Controls and Type | Exposure | OR (95% CI) | Adjustments to OR | NOS Quality Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alegria-Lertxundi et al., 2020 [32] | Spain (50–69) | 308 CRC (74 PCC, 234 DCC) | 204/104 | 308 C | Milk/dairy products: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 1.80 (0.95, 3.42) | Age, sex, BMI, energy intake, physical exercise level, smoking status and intensity of smoking, Deprivation Index, and Predictive Risk Modelling, including all the mean food groups (red and processed meat, fish, eggs, fibre-containing foods, nuts, fat, sweets and added sugar, and alcoholic beverage) | 7 |
Fresh cheese: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 0.92 (0.58, 1.46) | |||||||
Other cheeses: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 1.87 (1.11, 3.16) | |||||||
Zhang et al., 2020 [33] | China (30–75) | 2380 CRC (1476 CC, 828 RC, and 76 SCRC) | 1356/102 | 2389 H | Total dairy products: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 0.32 (0.27, 0.39) CRC (M): 0.30 (0.23, 0.38) CRC (W): 0.36 (0.27, 0.47) CC: 0.31 (0.25, 0.38) RC: 0.35 (0.27, 0.45) | Age, sex, marital status, residence, educational level, occupation, income level, occupational activity, household and recreational PA, smoking status, alcohol drinking, family history of cancer, BMI, total energy intake, vegetable, fruit, red meat, and dietary fibre intake, and for W: age at menarche | 7 |
Milk, drink vs. not drink | CRC: 0.52 (0.45, 0.59) CRC (M): 0.49 (0.41, 0.59) CRC (W): 0.56 (0.46, 0.88) CC: 0.53 (0.46, 0.62) RC: 0.53 (0.44, 0.64) | |||||||
Collatuzzo et al., 2022 [34] | Iran (controls, 57.2+/−11.5; cases, 58.6+/−12.4) | 865 CRC a (434 CC, 404 RC) | 497/368 | 3205 C | Total dairy products: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 1.06 (0.85, 1.32) CC: 1.00 (0.75, 1.34) PCC: 0.98 (0.61, 1.58) DCC: 0.96 (0.62, 1.47) RC: 1.06 (0.78, 1.44) | Sex, age, BMI, smoking, opium, province, aspirin, SES, PA, use of red and processed meat, fat intake, fibre intake | 5 |
Yogurt: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 0.96 (0.77, 1.20) CC: 0.78 (0.58, 1.06) PCC: 0.43 (0.27, 0.70) DCC: 0.81 (0.52, 1.26) RC: 1.07 (0.80, 1.45) | |||||||
Milk: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 0.98 (0.79, 1.21) CC: 1.06 (0.80, 1.41) PCC: 1.18 (0.74, 1.88) DCC: 1.30 (0.87, 1.96) RC: 0.97 (0.72, 1.31) | |||||||
Dough: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 1.26 (0.98, 1.61) CC: 1.15 (0.83, 1.60) PCC: 1.52 (0.88, 2.61) DCC: 1.06 (0.65, 1.73) RC: 1.36 (0.96, 1.91) | |||||||
Kashk: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 1.03 (0.81, 1.31) CC: 1.09 (0.79, 1.49) PCC: 0.90 (0.52, 1.58) DCC: 0.91 (0.57, 1.44) RC: 1.01 (0.73, 1.40) | |||||||
Cheese: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 1.08 (0.81, 1.44) CC: 1.08 (0.74, 1.56) PCC: 0.78 (0.40, 1.49) DCC: 1.20 (0.70, 2.05) RC: 0.96 (0.63, 1.47) | |||||||
Cream: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 1.33 (1.08, 1.64) CC: 1.37 (1.03, 1.81) PCC: 1.68 (1.08, 2.61) DCC: 0.93 (0.60, 1.43) RC: 1.20 (0.90, 1.60) | |||||||
Ice cream: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 0.86 (0.62, 1.21) CC: 0.75 (0.48, 1.17) PCC: 1.48 (0.68, 3.22) DCC: 0.44 (0.23, 0.85) RC: 0.98 (0.61, 1.55) | |||||||
Other milk products: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 1.00 (0.73, 1.37) CC: 0.99 (0.65, 1.50) PCC: 1.04 (0.53, 2.03) DCC: 1.07 (0.60, 1.92) RC: 0.96 (0.63, 1.47) |
Food Type | Cohort Studies | Case-Control studies | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
No. of Total Studies (Ref.) | No. of Studies (Ref.), Type of Association, Food Subtype a, CRC Overall or Subsites Risk b | No. of Total Studies (Ref.) | No. of Studies (Ref.), Type of Association, Food Subtype a, CRC Overall or Subsites Risk b | |
Total dairy products in overall | 5 [19,20,21,26,27] | 3 [19,20,21], inverse, CRC | 3 [32,33,34] | 1 [33], inverse, CRC |
Total dairy products by fat content | 1 [19] | |||
Total milk in overall | 5 [18,19,22,24,26] | 2 [33,34] | 1 [33], inverse, CRC | |
Total milk by fat content | 1 [19] | 1 [19], inverse, low-fat milk, CRC | ||
Yogurt and other fermented dairy products | 4 [19,23,24,26] | 1 [23], inverse, CC | 1 [34] | |
Cheese | 4 [19,22,24,26] | 1 [26], positive, “fromage blanc”, CRC | 2 [32,34] | 1 [32], positive, high-fat cheese, CRC |
Other dairy products | 3 [19,24,26] | 1 [26], positive, sugary dairy products, CRC | 1 [34] | 1 [34], positive, cream, CRC, CC, PCC; inverse, ice cream, DCC |
Study, Year (Ref.) | Study Cohort, Country (Age, y) | No. Participants (M/W) | No. Incident Cases (M/W) | Follow-Up Length, y | Exposure | HR (95%CI) | Adjustments to HR | NOS Quality Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aglago et al., 2020 [28] | EPIC, 10 European countries (cases, 57.3+/−7.9; controls, 51.2+/−9.95) | 142,241/333,919 | 2719/3572 | 14.9 | Total fish and shellfish: Q5 vs. Q1 | CRC: 0.88 (0.80, 0.96) CC: 0.89 (0.79, 1.00) RC: 0.88 (0.75, 1.04) PCC: 0.93 (0.79, 1.11) DCC: 0.89 (0.75, 1.07) | Stratified by age, sex, and centre. Adjusted for BMI, height, PA, smoking, education, and intakes of energy, alcohol, red and processed meat, fibre, and dairy products | 7 |
Oily fish: Q5 vs. Q1 | CRC: 0.90 (0.82, 0.98) CC: 0.89 (0.80, 0.99) RC: 0.91 (0.78, 1.06) PCC: 0.81 (0.70, 0.95) DCC: 1.03 (0.87, 1.21) | |||||||
Non-oily fish: Q5 vs. Q1 | CRC: 0.91 (0.83, 1.00) CC: 0.90 (0.80, 1.01) RC: 0.96 (0.82, 1.13) PCC: 0.95 (0.80, 1.12) DCC: 0.85 (0.71, 1.01) | |||||||
Bradbury et al., 2020 [22] | UK Biobank Cohort Study, UK (40–69) | 219,329/256,252 | 2609 | 5.7 | Total fish: ≥3 times/week vs. <once/week | CRC: 0.95 (0.80, 1.13) | Stratified by age, sex, geographical region, and SES. Adjusted for education, smoking status, waist circumference, height, PA, alcohol intake, family history of CRC, aspirin or ibuprofen use, use of vitamin D and folate supplements and for W: parity, menopause, OCA and HRT use | 6 |
Poultry: ≥2 times/week vs. never | CRC: 0.96 (0.79, 1.18) | |||||||
Knuppel et al., 2020 [29] | UK Biobank Cohort Study, UK (37–73) | 218,498/256,498 | 28,955 | 6.9 | Poultry: per 30 g/day | CRC: 1.02 (0.91, 1.14) CC: 1.01 (0.88, 1.15) RC: 1.02 (0.85, 1.24) RC (M): 1.27 (1.00, 1.62) RC (W): 0.72 (0.52, 0.98) | Stratified for sex, age group, region; and adjusted for age, ethnicity, deprivation, qualification, employment, living with a spouse or partner, height, smoking, PA, alcohol intake, total fruit and vegetable intake, estimated cereal fibre intake, BMI, and for W: menopausal status, parity, HRT and OCA use | 7 |
Mejborn et al., 2021 [30] | The Danish National Survey on Diet and Physical Activity cohort study, Denmark (>50) | 3033/3249 | 127 CRC | 8.7 | Poultry: ≥16 g/day vs. <16 g/day | CRC: 1.62 (1.13, 2.31) | Sex, educational attainment, ethnicity, smoking, PA, alcohol, BMI, and total energy intake | 7 |
Wang et al., 2022 [31] | NHS, NHSII, and HPFS, USA (M, 40–75; W, 25–42) | 527/4742 | 404 CC, 122 RC | 30 | Total fish: 1 SD, MPS Oily fish: 1 SD, MPS Canned tuna fish: 1 SD, MPS | CRC: OR, 0.86 (0.78, 0.96) CRC: OR, 0.86 (0.77, 0.96) CRC: OR, 0.87 (0.78, 0.97) | BMI, family history of CRC, endoscopy, multivitamin use, aspirin use, smoking, PA, total energy intake, alcohol intake, and modified AHEI (in NHS/HPFS) | 6 |
Poultry: 1 SD, MPS | CRC: OR, 0.94 (0.85, 1.05) |
Study, Year (Ref.) | Country (Age, y) | No. Cases and Endpoint | Sex, No. of Cases (M/W) | No. Controls and Type | Exposure | OR (95% CI) | Adjustments to OR | NOS Quality Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Deoula et al., 2019 [35] | Morocco (≥18) | 1453 CRC | 716/737 | 1453 C | White meat: >308 g/week vs. ≤308 g/week | CRC: 1.07 (0.96, 1.19) CRC (M): 1.08 (0.92, 1.26) CRC (W): 1.15 (0.93, 1.42) CC: 1.13 (0.97, 1.31) CC (M): 1.13 (0.91, 1.41) CC (W): 1.01 (0.80, 1.26) RC: 1.01 (0.86, 1.18) RC (M): 1.03 (0.82, 1.28) RC (W): 1.08 (0.92, 1.25) | Age, residence, education level, monthly income, PA intensity, smoking status, BMI, NSAIDs, total energy intake, calcium, dietary fibre, family history of CRC, dairy product, fruits, vegetable, fish, and alcohol consumption | 6 |
Turkey: >51 g/week vs. ≤51 g/week | CRC: 0.89 (0.80, 1.01) CRC (M): 0.94 (0.75, 1.18) CC: 0.92 (0.79, 1.08) CC (M): 0.90 (0.72, 1.13) RC: 0.85 (0.72, 1.01) RC (M): 0.92 (0.79, 1.08) | |||||||
Poultry: >196 g/week vs. ≤196 g/week | CRC: 1.10 (0.99, 1.23) CRC (M): 1.15 (0.98, 1.35) CRC (W): 1.08 (0.92, 1.26) CC: 1.15 (0.98, 1.34) CC (M): 1.27 (1.01, 1.59) CC (W): 1.10 (0.88, 1.37) RC: 1.05 (0.89, 1.22) RC (M): 1.05 (0.84, 1.31) RC (W): 1.08 (0.86, 1.36) | |||||||
Kim et al., 2019 [36] | Republic of Korea (cases, 56.6+/−9.7; controls, 56.1+/−9.1) | 923 CRC | 625/298 | 1846 C | Total fish and shellfish: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 1.04 (0.82, 1.32) CRC (M): 0.99 (0.74, 1.32) CRC (W): 1.25 (0.81, 1.94) | Total energy intake, BMI, first-degree family history of CRC, occupation, educational level, monthly income, marital status, regular exercise, and alcohol consumption | 6 |
Alegria-Lertxundi et al., 2020 [32] | Spain (50–69) | 308 CRC (234 DCC, 74 PCC) | 204/104 | 308 C | Eggs: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 1.26 (0.71, 2.23) | Age, sex, BMI, energy intake, physical exercise level, smoking status and intensity of smoking, Deprivation Index, and Predictive Risk Modelling, including all the mean food groups (red and processed meat, fibre-containing foods, nuts, fat, sweets and added sugar, and alcoholic beverage) | 7 |
Total fish: T3 vs. T1 Oily fish: T3 vs. T1 Non-oily fish: T3 vs. T1 | CRC: 1.25 (0.68, 2.29) CRC: 0.53 (0.27, 0.99) CRC: 1.29 (0.74–2.25) | |||||||
Shen et al., 2021 [37] | China (cases, 60.3+/−13.4; controls, 59.6+/−12.9) | 100 CRC | 54/46 | 100 C | Eggs: ≥280 g/week vs. <280 g/week | CRC: 0.26 (0.10, 0.69) | Age, BMI | 4 |
White meat: >500 g/week vs. ≤500 g/week | CRC: 0.86 (0.30, 2.46) | |||||||
Franchi et al., 2022 [38] | Italy (50–69) | 2419 CRC (727 DCC, 373 PCC) | 1432/987 | 4723 H | Total fish (canned and non-canned) vs. no fish | CRC: 0.69 (0.58, 0.81) | Centre, study, sex, age, BMI, education, family history of CRC, PA at work, smoking habits, alcohol consumption, vegetable and fruit consumption, and energy intake | 5 |
Non-canned fish vs. no fish | CRC: 0.88 (0.77, 1.00) | |||||||
Only canned fish vs. no fish | CRC: 0.77 (0.62, 0.97) | |||||||
Canned fish: ≥2 servings/week vs. <1 serving/week | CRC: 0.86 (0.51, 0.85) CC: 0.66 (0.49, 0.90) RC: 0.65 (0.44, 0.95) | The same as in the previous row plus fish consumption |
Food Type | Cohort Studies | Case-Control Studies | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
No. of Total Studies (Ref.) | No. of Studies (ref.), Type of Association, CRC Overall or Subsites Risk a | No. of Total Studies (Ref.) | No. of Studies (Ref.), Type of Association, CRC Overall or Subsites Risk a | |
Total fish | 3 [22,28,31] | 2 [28,31], inverse, CRC and CC | 3 [32,36,38] | 1 [38], inverse, CRC |
Oily fish | 2 [28,31] | 2 [28,31], inverse, CRC, CC, and PCC | 1 [32] | 1 [32], inverse, CRC |
Non-oily fish | 1 [28] | 1 [28], inverse, CRC, CC, and DCC | 1 [32] | |
Canned fish | 1 [31] | 1 [31], inverse, CRC | 1 [38] | 1 [38], inverse, CRC |
White meat | 1 [37] | 1 [35] | ||
Poultry | 4 [22,29,30,31] | 1 [29], inverse, RC (W); positive, RC (M) | 1 [35] | 1 [35], positive, CC (M) |
Turkey | 1 [35] | |||
Egg | 2 [32,37] | 1 [37], inverse, CRC |
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Alegria-Lertxundi, I.; Bujanda, L.; Arroyo-Izaga, M. Role of Dairy Foods, Fish, White Meat, and Eggs in the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer: A Systematic Review of Observational Studies in 2018–2022. Nutrients 2022, 14, 3430. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14163430
Alegria-Lertxundi I, Bujanda L, Arroyo-Izaga M. Role of Dairy Foods, Fish, White Meat, and Eggs in the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer: A Systematic Review of Observational Studies in 2018–2022. Nutrients. 2022; 14(16):3430. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14163430
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlegria-Lertxundi, Iker, Luis Bujanda, and Marta Arroyo-Izaga. 2022. "Role of Dairy Foods, Fish, White Meat, and Eggs in the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer: A Systematic Review of Observational Studies in 2018–2022" Nutrients 14, no. 16: 3430. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14163430