Effect of Omega-3 Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (n-3 LCPUFA) Supplementation on Cognition in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Literature Review with a Focus on n-3 LCPUFA Blood Values and Dose of DHA and EPA
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Included Studies
3.2. Omega-3 Index Equivalence
3.3. Supplementation Dose
3.4. Children and Adolescents with a Disease or Disorder
4. Discussion
4.1. Omega-3 Index Equivalence
4.2. Supplementation Dose in Typically Developing Children and Adolescents
4.3. Supplementation Dose in Children and Adolescents with a Disease or Disorder
4.4. Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
PUBMED Search Strategy | (((“fatty acid”[Title/Abstract]) OR “fatty acids”[Title/Abstract]) OR “omega-3”[Title/Abstract]) OR “omega-6”[Title/Abstract]) OR pufa[Title/Abstract]) OR lcpufa[Title/Abstract]) OR mufa[Title/Abstract]) OR fish oil*[Title/Abstract]))) AND ((child [Title/Abstract] OR children [Title/Abstract] OR childhood [Title/Abstract] OR kid [Title/Abstract] or kids [Title/Abstract] OR girl* [Title/Abstract] OR boy* [Title/Abstract] OR teenage* [Title/Abstract] OR youth* [Title/Abstract] OR youngster* [Title/Abstract] OR preschool* [Title/Abstract] OR pre-school* [Title/Abstract] OR kindergarten* [Title/Abstract] OR “elementary school” [Title/Abstract] OR elementary-school [Title/Abstract] OR juvenile* [Title/Abstract] OR minors [Title/Abstract] OR minor [Title/Abstract] OR pediatric* [Title/Abstract] OR paediatric* [Title/Abstract] OR schoolchild*[Title/Abstract] OR toddler*[Title/Abstract] OR teen [Title/Abstract] OR teens [Title/Abstract] OR child, preschool [MeSH terms] OR child [MeSH terms])) AND (cognit*)Searched 03–07-2019–421 hits | |
Web of Science Search Strategy | #1 | (TS = (“fatty acid” OR “fatty acids” OR “omega-3” OR “omega-6” or pufa OR lcpufa OR mufa OR “fish oil*”)) Indexes = SCI-EXPANDED, SSCI, A&HCI, ESCI Timespan = All years |
#2 | (TS = (child OR children OR childhood OR kid OR kids OR girl* OR boy* OR teenage* OR youth* OR youngster* OR preschool* OR pre-school* OR kindergarten* OR “elementary school” OR elementary-school OR juvenile* OR minors OR minor OR childhood OR pediatric* OR paediatric* OR schoolchild OR toddler* OR teen OR teens)) Indexes = SCI-EXPANDED, SSCI, A&HCI, ESCI Timespan = All years | |
#3 | (TS = (cognit*)) Indexes = SCI-EXPANDED, SSCI, A&HCI, ESCI Timespan = All years #3 AND #2 AND #1 Indexes = SCI-EXPANDED, SSCI, A&HCI, ESCI Timespan = All years Searched 03-07-2019-469 hits |
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Author, n 1 | Mean Age in Years (SD) and Any Specifics | DHA, EPA Dosage Per day Active Group | Other Constituents Active As Specified in Manuscript | Placebo as Specified in Manuscript | Duration (in Weeks) | Cognitive Tests | Adherence | Effect on Cognition? |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antypa n 54 [27] | A: 22.2 P: 22.6 | 250 mg DHA, 1740 mg EPA, | 310 mg other n-3 PUFA | Olive oil | 4 | Affective Go/No-Go task, attentional Go/No-Go task, 15 word test, decision-making (gambling) task. | OS | Y, in gains only trials of gambling task the n-3 group showed sig. more risk-seeking decision-making behavior than the placebo group. |
Baumgartner n 321 [28] | 6–11 iron deficient | 240 mg DHA 46 mg EPA 1,3 | 28.6 mg iron sulfate 2,3 | Medium chain triglycerides 3 | 15 | The Atlantis test, Atlantis Delayed test, The Hand Movement test, the Triangles test, The Hopkins Verbal Learning Test | 95.4% | N |
Benton n 305 [29] | 21.8 | 400 mg DHA | 10:0 5 mg, 12:0 38 mg, 14:0 121 mg, 16:0 78 mg, 18:0 10 mg, 18:1 312 mg, 18:2 15 mg, 22:0 3 mg | Maize/soya oil: 16:0 110 mg, 18:0 30 mg, 18:1 233 mg, 18: 2 567 mg, 18:5 41 mg, 20:0 4 mg, 20:1 3 mg, 22:0 2 mg | 7.1 | Recall of word list (immediate and delayed), recall of capitals, reaction time test, rapid information processing task | NR | Y, those taking DHA sig. forgot more than the placebo group on the recall of word list after 50 days. |
Dalton n 183 [30] | 7–9 some underweight, wasted or stunted | 127.3 mg DHA, 54.6 mg EPA 4,5 | 222.55 mg ALA, 1041.2 mg LA, 15.4 mg AA 6 | 55.8 mg ALA, 9.8 mg EPA, 23.7 mg DHA, 1668.2 mg LA, 4.5 mg AA 7 | 14.9 | Hopkins Verbal Learning Test | A: 94.8% P: 94.5% | Y, sig. intervention effect for recall 1 and recall 3, recognition and discrimination index score |
Guzman n 34 [31] | 23.58 female elite soccer players | 3500 g DHA | - | Olive oil | 4 | Multiple reaction times | NR | Y, those taking DHA showed sig. improvement in complex reaction time and complex reaction efficiency |
Hamazaki n 42 [32] | Two groups: (1) 19–20 (2) 22 | 1500–1800 mg DHA, 200–240 mg EPA dependent on bodyweight | palmitic acid 270–324 mg, oleic acid 219–263 mg, AA 99–119 mg, palmitoleic acid 96–115 mg, stearic acid and others 69–83 mg | Soybean oil + partly deodorized fish oil: LA 1623–1948 mg, oleic acid 669–803 mg, palmitic acid 324–389 mg, ALA 204–245 mg, stearic acid 111–133 mg, DHA and others 15–18 mg | 12 | Adapted Stroop test, dementia-detecting test (to assess higher functions of brain) | NR | N |
Jackson n 140 [33] | DHA rich group 21.96 (0.54), EPA rich group 22.74 (0.61) P: 21.94 (0.50) | I: DHA rich group: 450 mg DHA, 90 mg EPA II: EPA rich group: 300 mg EPA, 200 mg DHA | I: NS II: NS | 1 g olive oil | 12 | Immediate Word Recall, Simple RT, Choice RT, Four Choice RT, Stroop Task, Verbal Fluency, Alphabetic Working Memory, Corsi Block Task, Three Block Task, Telephone Number Working Memory Task, Delay Word Recall, Delayed Word Recognition, Delayed Picture Recognition, Names-To-Faces Recall, Cognitive Demand Battery (Serial 3 Subtractions, Serial 7 Subtractions, Rapid Visual Information Processing). | DHA: 91% EPA: 90% P: 92% | Y, DHA group had sig faster reaction time on Stroop Task compared to placebo group. Both DHA and EPA group matched sig. fewer items on the Names-To-Faces-task than the placebo group. |
Jackson n 64 [34] | 20.58 | 1 g fish oil (FO) group: 450 mg DHA, 90 mg EPA, oil. 2 g FO group: 900 mg DHA, 180 mg EPA, | 1 g FO: 1 g olive 2 g FO: NS | 2 g olive oil | 12 | Corsi blocks task, Numeric Working Memory, 3-Back Task, Simple Reaction time, Choice Reaction Time, Four Choice Reaction Time, Stroop Task, Rapid Visual Information Processing Task, Serial 7 Subtractions while near-infra red spectroscopy was executed. | 1 g: 91% 2 g: 92% P: 96% | Y, sig. treatment effect on reaction time for Choice Reaction Time task, reaction time in both treatment groups faster. Sig. effect of treatment on Rapid Visual Information Processing Task, reaction time sig faster in 2 g FO group compared to placebo. |
Karr n 41 [35] | FO: 19.9 (1.8) P: 20.4 (1.6) | 480 mg DHA, 720 mg EPA | NS | 1 g coconut oil | 4 | Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Stroop Color and Word Test and Trail Making Test | 99% | Y, interaction condition x test moment sign. for Rey auditory Verbal Learning Test stage 6, stage 7 and summary 7–5 (FO improved from baseline, placebo not) but main effect cognition not sign. Placebo condition improved sig. over FO group on Trial Making Test. |
Kennedy n 90 [36] | 10–12 | Low dose: 400 mg DHA, 8 mg EPA High dose: 1000 mg DHA, 20 mg EPA | Low dose: 2092 mg vegetable oil High dose: 1480 mg vegetable oil 8 | 2.5 g vegetable oil containing 75 mg ALA and 1250 mg LA | 8 | Internet Battery (Word Presentation, Picture Presentation, Arrow Reaction Time Test, Arrow Flanker Test, Paired Associate Learning, Sentence Verification, Delayed Word Recognition, Delayed Picture Recognition) and Cognitive Drug Research Battery (Picture Presentation, Word Presentation/Immediate Word Recall, Simple RT, Digit Vigilance Task: Choice RT, Spatial Working Memory, Numeric Working Memory, Delayed Word Recall, Delayed Word Recognition, Delayed Picture Recognition | >80% | N, sig. main treatment effect on speed of Word Recognition of the Cognitive Drug Research Battery. Post-hoc analysis: the low dose group was sig. faster than the placebo group. However, the high dose group was sig. slower than placebo group. |
Kirby n 348 [37] | 8–10 | 400 mg DHA, 56 mg EPA, | 64 mg other n-3 fatty acids, vitamin A 800 mg RE, vitamin C 60 mg, vitamin D 5 mg, and vitamin E 3 mg | Olive oil | 16 | Working Memory Test Battery for Children (digit recall, block recall and backward digit recall), TEA-Ch (Creature Counting), Matching Familiar Figures Task | OS | Y, in intention to treat analysis no sig. effects. In per protocol analysis PUFA group had higher number of first correct responses on matching familiar figures task in comparison to baseline, the change for placebo group was not sig. |
Long n 202 [38] | 20.9 | 672 mg DHA, 93.3 mg EPA 9 | 14:0 4.5 mg, 16:0 13.8 mg, 16:1 5.4 mg, 17:0 3 mg, 18:0 39.3 mg, 18:1 70.2 mg, 18:0 12.6 mg, 18:2 10.2 mg, 18:3 4.2 mg, 18:4 5.1 mg, 20:0 8.4 mg, 20:1 34.8 mg, 20:2 (n-9) 5.4 mg, 20:3 (n-6) 2.7 mg, 20:4 (n-6) 27.9 mg, 20:3 (n-3) 3.3 mg, 20:4 (n-3) 8.4 mg, 22:0 (n-3) 5.1 mg, 22:1 (n-11) 27.9 mg, 22:1 (n-9) 6.3 mg, 22:4 (n-6) 6 mg, 22:5 (n-6) 50.7 mg, 22:5 (n-3) 35.7 mg, 24:0 4.5 mg, 24:1 20.4 mg, minor components 4.9%, alpha tocopheryl acetate (2.25 mg), and mixed tocopherols (4.5 mg). multi vitamin and mineral supplement | 14:0 9.0 mg, 16:0 392.1 mg, 16:1 2.1 mg, 18:0 50.1 mg, 18:1 562.5 mg, 18:1 (n-7) 16.5 mg, 18:2 289.5 mg, 18:3 29.1 mg, 20:0 5.4 mg, 20:1 5.4 mg, 22:0 (n-3) 3.3 mg, 22:1 1.5 mg, 24:0 1.5 mg, minor components (0.4%), alpha tocopheryl acetate (2.28 mg), and mixed tocopherols (4.5 mg) | 12 | Go Stop Impulsivity Paradigm | NR | Y, only for participants with high impulsivity at baseline: the % of inhibited responses was sig. greater if they had consumed DHA rather than a placebo. For participants with low impulsivity no effect of supplementation was shown. |
McNamara n 38 [39] | 8–10 | Low dose: 400 mg DHA High dose: 1200 mg DHA, | Low dose: 2 g corn oil High dose: - | 3 g corn oil | 8 | The identical-pairs version of the Continuous Performance task (CPT-IP). | NR | N |
Montgomery n 376 [40] | 7–9 underperforming on reading | 600 mg DHA 22.5 mg EPA | 14:0 72.4 mg, 16:0 222 mg, 18:0 14.5 mg, 18:1 n-9 242.9 mg, 18:2 n-6 16.1 mg, 22:5 n-6 252.5 mg | 1500 mg corn/soy bean oil | 16 | Recall of digits Forward and Recall of Digits Backwards | 75% | N |
Muthayya n 598 [41] | 6–10 marginally nourished | High n-3: 86 mg DHA 10,11 | High n-3: 800 mg ALA + high or low micronutrient 12,13 | Low n-3: 120 mg ALA + high or low micronutrient 13,14 | 52 | Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (pattern reasoning, triangles, rover, number recall, word order and Atlantis), Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (picture arrangement and coding), Rey Auditory Verbal Learning test (auditory-verbal learning test), Neuropsychological Assessment Tool (verbal fluency) and number cancellation | 70% | N |
Osendarp n 780 [42] | 6–10 Some marginally nourished | 88 mg DHA 22 mg EPA 15,16 | Multivitamin 17 | Base powder | 52 | Digits Backwards, Visual Attention 2, Coding, Block Design, Fluency Structured and Random, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test. | 73–87% | N |
Parletta n 408 [43] | 3–13 18 | 174 mg DHA 558 mg EPA | 60 mg GLA, 10.8 mg vitamin E | Palm oil + fraction of fish oil | 28.6 | Draw-A-Person | Y, sig. treatment by group interaction whereby the treatment group improved compared to placebo. | |
Portillo-Reyes n 55 [44] | 8–12 Malnourished | 180 mg DHA 270 mg EPA | Not reported | Soy bean oil | 12 | Symbol Search, Embedded Figures Test, Visual Closure, Block Design, TMT A, Letter Cancellation, Rey Complex Figure, Word List, Semantic Fluency, Matrix Reasoning, Letter-Number Sequencing, Stroop Color and Word test, TMT-B: Shifting. | NR | Y, only the treatment group improved sig. in Symbol Search, Embedded Figures, Visual Closure, Block Design, Stroop-Color, Stroop Color-Word and Matrix Reasoning. |
Richardson n 362 [45] | 7–9 underperforming on reading | 600 mg DHA | NS | 1500 mg corn/soy bean oil | 16 | Recall of Digits Forward and Recall of Digits Backwards | 75% | Y, post intervention score for Recall of Digits Forwards sig. higher in active treatment group. |
Ryan n 202 [46] | 4 | 400 mg DHA | high-oleic sunflower oil | 16 | Leiter-R Test of Sustained Attention, Day-Night Stroop Test, and Conners’ Kiddie Continuous Performance Test, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. | Nearly 100% | N | |
Van der Wurff n 267 [47] | 13–15 | 280 mg DHA, 520 mg EPA | NS | Capsules with a fatty acid profile comparable to the fatty acid composition of the average European diet: mix of olive oil, corn oil, palm oil and medium chain triglycerides: (16:0 26%, 18:0 4.6%, 18: 1–9 35.8%, 18:2–6 16.7%, 18:3–32.1%, 20:4–6 0% and other compounds 14.8%) | 52 | Letter Digit Substitution Task, Concept Shifting Task, Digit Span Forwards and Backwards, D2 test of Attention. | OS | N |
Author, n, Reference | Mean Age in Years (Sd) and Any Specifics | DHA, EPA Dosage per Day Active Group | Other Constituents Active as Specified in Manuscript | Placebo as Specified in Manuscript | Duration (in Weeks) | Cognitive Measure | Adherence | Effect on Cognition? |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bos n 79 [48] | ADHD: 10.3 Typically developing: 10.9 | 650 mg DHA, 650 mg EPA | 70 mg ALA, 30 mg AA, 1 g LA, 2.66 g saturated FA, 2.08 g MUFA, 6.4 mg vitamin E | 60 mg ALA, 1 g LA, 2.59 g saturated FA, 4.32 g MUFA, 0.52 mg vitamin E | 16 | Go-No Go task | ADHD: 92.2% TD: 91.4% | N |
Cornu n 162 [49] | A: 10.2 P: 9.7 ADHD | 84 mg-168 mg DHA, 336–672 mg EPA1 | 100μg vitamin A, 1.25 μg vitamin D, 3.5 mg vitamin E | Olive oil + marine lipid concentrate containing 4.83 mg EPA + DHA, 100μg vitamin A, 1.25μg vitamin D, 3.5 mg vitamin E | 12 | KiTAP (6–10 yr) and TAP (11–15 yr): Distractibility, Flexibility and Go/NoGo | OS | N |
Crippa n 50 [50] | 7–14 ADHD drug-naïve | 500 mg DHA | wheat germ oil, low concentration vitamin E. | 24 | Abbreviated ANT: Focused Attention 4 letters, Shifting Attentional Set-Visual and Sustained Attention. | 83.2% | Y, DHA group showed a decrease in misses in Focused Attention 4 letters task at 6 mo, placebo group showed decrease at 4 mo but not at 6 mo. DHA group showed reduction in false alarms irrelevant target in Focused Attention 4-letters task at 6 mo. | |
Demmelmair n 109 [51] | 5–13 PKU | Between 20 and 254 mg DHA2 | 14:0 5–64 mg, 14:1 0–1 mg, 16:0 37–61 mg, 16:1 1.5–14 mg 18:0 15.5–20 mg, 18:1 403–536 mg, 18:2 n-6 29–35, 18:n3–3 0.5–1 mg, 20:0 1.5–2 mg, 20:1 n-9 1–2 mg, 22:0 3.5–5 mg, 24:1 n-9 1–2 mg, 22:5 n-3 0–3 mg3 | 16:0 16.5–33 mg, 16.1 0.5–1 mg, 18:0 16–32 mg, 18:1 428.5–857 mg, 18:2 n-6 29–58 mg, 18:3 n-3 0.5–1 mg, 20:0 1.5–3 mg, 20:1 n-9 1.5–3 mg, 22:0 4–8 mg, 24:1 n-9 1.5–3 mg4 | 24 | Raven Progressive Matrices (standard or coloured) | 96–102% | N |
Hirayama n 40 [52] | 6–12 ADHD | 514 mg DHA, 100 mg EPA5 | - | Olive oil | 16 | Adapted Test of Visual Perception, Visual and Auditory Short-Term Memory, Developmental Test of Visual–Motor Integration, Continuous Performance Test | NR | Y, Visual Short Term Memory and number of errors of commission on Continuous Performance Test improved sig. in control group. |
Kean n 112 [53] | 6–14, mean 8.7 ADHD rating score >15 | 16.5–22 mg DHA, 21.9–29.2 mg EPA 6 | 300–400 mg olive oil, 0.68–0.90 mg vitamin E, diverse sterol esters (amounts not specified) | Olive oil, lecithin, coconut oil and beta-carotene | 14 | COMPASS cognitive battery: Word Presentation, Immediate Word Recall, Picture Presentation, Simple Reaction Time, Choice Reaction Time, Numeric Working Memory, Delayed Word Recall, Delayed Word Recognition, Delayed Picture Recognition. TOVA | 96.7% | Y, improved memory accuracy score in active group for recalled target and non-target pictures correctly and sig. overall picture recognition accuracy only at 8 weeks not at 14 weeks. No sig. differences in TOVA. Additionally subgroup differences showed difference between diagnosed and non-diagnosed participants in response to supplement. |
Rodriguez n 95 [54] | 6–19 ADHD | 1000–2000 mg DHA, 90–180 mg EPA 7 | 150–300 mg n-3 DPA, 4.5–9 mg vitamin E | Olive oil | 24 | AULA Nesplora test, d2 test of attention | OS | N |
Sinn n 167 [55] | 7–12 ADHD symptoms no stimulant medication | 174 mg DHA, 558 mg EPA 8 | 60 mg GLA, 10.8 mg vitamin E, multivitamin 9 | Palm oil: 44.3% palmitic acid C16, 4.6% stearic acid C18, 1% myristic acid C14, 38.7% oleic acid C18, and 10.5% LA | 15w–one way CO 15w | Digit-Symbol Coding, Inspection Time, Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test, Creature Counting, DSB, Knock and Tap, Stroop Colour-Word Test. | OS | Y, PUFA group had sig improvement compared to placebo on Creature Counting with large effect. |
Stevens n 50 [56] | P: 10.1 A: 9.5 ADHD + high thirst/ skin symptom score | 480 mg DHA, 80 mg EPA | 40 mg AA, 96 mg GLA, 24 mg vitamin E | Olive oil | 16 | Conners’ Continuous Performance Test, Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Revised | 88% | Y, hit reaction time on Conner’s Continuous Performance Test showed a treatment effect in favor of treatment group. Auditory processing showed improvement in treatment group only (no significant difference between groups). |
Vaisman n 83 [57] | 8–13 ADHD and impaired visual sustained attention performance | FO: 96 mg DHA, 153 mg EPA or n-3 LCPUFA containing PLs: 95 mg DHA, 156 mg EPA | FO: 14:0 63 mg, 16:0 147 mg, 18:0 31 mg, 20:0 2 mg, 22:0 2 mg, 24:0 4 mg, 16:1 n-7 68 mg, 18:1 n-9 95 mg, 18:1 n-7 25 mg, 20:1 n-9 12 mg, 22:1 n-9 7 mg, 18:2 n-6 18 mg, 18:3 n-6 2 mg, 20:4 n-6 7 mg, 18:3 n-3 25 mg LC-PUFA containing PLs: 14:0 19 mg, 16:0 141 mg, 18:0 7 mg, 22:0 1 mg, 16:1 n-7 19 mg, 18:1 n-9 37 mg, 18:1 n-7 44 mg, 20:1 n-9 5 mg, 22:1 n-9 5 mg, 18:2 n-6 11 mg, 18:3 n-6 1 mg, 20:4 n-6 4 mg, 18:3 n-3 7 mg, 22:5 n-3: 4 mg 10 | 16:0 30 mg, 18:0 13 mg, 20:0 5 mg, 22:0 3 mg, 24:0 1 mg, 16:1 n-7 1 mg, 18:1 n-9 415 mg, 20:1 n-9 12 mg, 22:1 n-9 4 mg, 18:2 n-6 150 mg, 18:3 n-3 69 mg | 12 | TOVA | OS | Y, The PL-n3 and, to a limited extent, the FO treatment significantly improved errors of commission, response time, and response time variability as compared with placebo intervention |
Voigt n 63 [58] | 6–12 ADHD | 345 mg DHA | - | Not specified | 16 | TOVA, The Children’s Color Trails test | OS | N |
Widdenhorn-Muller n 110 [59] | 6–12 ADHD | 120 mg DHA, 600 mg EPA | 15 mg vitamin E | Olive oil | 16 | DSF, DSB, Letter Number Sequencing, HAWIK Number-Symbol, Symbol Search Test, KITAP or TAP (dependent on age participant) | OS | Y, sig. improvement on working memory index score, Digit Span subtest and DSB. |
O3I Equivalence Before | O3I Equivalence After | O3I Equivalence Change | Significant Effect on Cognition? | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DHA, EPA Dose per Day | Blood Fraction | Formulae Used 1 | Intervention | Placebo | Intervention | Placebo | Intervention | Placebo | ||
Typically developing | ||||||||||
Antypa [27] | 250 mg DHA, 1740 mg EPA | Plasma FA | 0.94 x + 1.17 | 3.46 | 3.18 | 6.28 | 3.36 | 2.82 | 0.18 | Y |
Baumgartner 2 [28] | 240 mg DHA, 46 mg EPA | Total PP fraction of erythr membranes | 3.20 a 3.17 b | 3.22 c 3.24 d | 6.27 a 6.33 b | 4.03 c 3.97 d | 3.07 3.16 | 0.81 0.73 | N | |
Jackson 3 [33] | DHA rich group: 450 mg DHA, 90 mg EPA EPA rich group: 300 mg EPA, 200 mg DHA | Serum FA | 0.94 x + 1.17 | 3.34 e 3.31 f | 3.16 | 4.21 e 4.24 f | 3.29 | 0.87 0.93 | 0.13 | Y |
Muthayya [41] | 86 mg DHA | Erythr membranes in PP fraction | - | 3.37 3.38 | 3.37 3.48 | 5.55 5.59 | 3.85 3.86 | 2.18 2.21 | 0.48 0.38 | N |
Hamazaki [32] | 1500–1800 mg DHA, 200–240 mg EPA4 | Total serum FA | 0.94 x + 1.17 | 4.93 | 5.96 | 9.25 | 5.68 | 4.32 | −0.28 | N |
Ryan [46] | 400 mg DHA | Capillary WB | 1.10 x + 0.65 | 2.08 | 2.08 | 4.83 | 2.19 | 2.75 | 0.11 | N |
Van der Wurff [47] | 280 mg DHA, 520 mg EPA | Capillary WB | - | 3.72 | 3.83 | 4.86 | 3.98 | 1.03 | 0.15 | N |
With disorder/disease | ||||||||||
Stevens [56] | 480 mg DHA, 80 mg EPA | Eryth membranes | - | 4.08 | 3.78 | 8.83 | 3.53 | 4.75 | −0.25 | Y |
Widdenhorn-Muller [59] | 120 mg DHA, 600 mg EPA | Eryth membranes | - | 4.13 | 4.05 | 7.82 | 4.03 | 3.69 | −0.02 | Y |
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van der Wurff, I.S.M.; Meyer, B.J.; de Groot, R.H.M. Effect of Omega-3 Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (n-3 LCPUFA) Supplementation on Cognition in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Literature Review with a Focus on n-3 LCPUFA Blood Values and Dose of DHA and EPA. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3115. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12103115
van der Wurff ISM, Meyer BJ, de Groot RHM. Effect of Omega-3 Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (n-3 LCPUFA) Supplementation on Cognition in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Literature Review with a Focus on n-3 LCPUFA Blood Values and Dose of DHA and EPA. Nutrients. 2020; 12(10):3115. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12103115
Chicago/Turabian Stylevan der Wurff, Inge S.M., Barbara J. Meyer, and Renate H.M. de Groot. 2020. "Effect of Omega-3 Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (n-3 LCPUFA) Supplementation on Cognition in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Literature Review with a Focus on n-3 LCPUFA Blood Values and Dose of DHA and EPA" Nutrients 12, no. 10: 3115. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12103115
APA Stylevan der Wurff, I. S. M., Meyer, B. J., & de Groot, R. H. M. (2020). Effect of Omega-3 Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (n-3 LCPUFA) Supplementation on Cognition in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Literature Review with a Focus on n-3 LCPUFA Blood Values and Dose of DHA and EPA. Nutrients, 12(10), 3115. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12103115