Estimation of Starch and Sugar Intake in a Japanese Population Based on a Newly Developed Food Composition Database
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Development of a Food Composition Database
2.1.1. Total Sugar and Saccharides
2.1.2. Starch
2.1.3. Free Sugar and Naturally Occurring Sugar
2.2. Estimation of Starch and Sugar Intake
2.2.1. Dietary Dataset
2.2.2. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Toddlers a | Preschool Children a | Schoolchildren b | Adults c | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Data collection period | October to December 2015 | October to December 2015 | November to December 2014 | February to March 2013 |
Population characteristics | ||||
Number of participants | 373 | 380 | 1190 d | 392 |
Age | 18–35 months | 3–6 years | 8–14 years | 20–69 years |
Study setting | Nursery facilities (n = 315) | Nursery facilities (n = 315) | Elementary schools (n = 14) and junior high schools (n = 13) | 199 welfare facilities (for aged <60 years) and neighbors or acquaintances of the dietitians of welfare facilities (aged ≥60 years) |
Study area e | 24 of 47 prefectures | 24 prefectures | 12 prefectures | 20 study areas f |
Recruitment | Four boys and four girls aged 18–23 months and 24–35 months (16 children in total) | Two boys and two girls aged 3, 4, 5 and 6 years (16 children in total) | 30 children in each of third and fifth grades of elementary school and 30 children in the second grade of junior high school (90 children in total) | Two men and two women from each of five 10-year age groups (20–29, 30–39, 40–49, 50–59 and 60–69 years, 20 participants in total) |
Exclusion criteria | Under diet therapy by a doctor or a dietitian at the time of the study; having particular dietary habits (such as vegetarian); or having guardians (mothers in almost all cases) whose occupation was dietitians or medical doctors | Under diet therapy by a doctor or a dietitian at the time of the study; having particular dietary habits (such as vegetarian); or having guardians (mothers in almost all cases) whose occupation was dietitians or medical doctors | None | Dietitian; not living in the prefecture in which the facility was located or its adjacent prefectures; under diet therapy by a doctor or a dietitian at the time of the study or within one year before the study; pregnant or lactating women; or history of educational admission for diabetes mellitus |
Characteristics of DR * | ||||
Number of days | 1 day: one weekday with a uniformed lunch provided by facilities | 3 days: two weekdays with a uniformed lunch provided by facilities and one weekend day without a uniformed lunch provided by facilities | 3 days: two weekdays with a uniformed lunch provided by schools and one weekend day without a uniformed lunch provided by schools | 4 days: three weekdays and one weekend day |
Toddlers (Aged 18–35 Months) a | Preschool Children (Aged 3–6 Years) b | Schoolchildren (Aged 8–14 Years) b | Adults (Aged 20-69 Years) b | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boys (n = 183) | Girls (n = 185) c | Boys (n = 186) | Girls (n = 190) c | Boys (n = 435) | Girls (n = 480) c | Men (n = 196) | Women (n = 196) c | |||||||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |
Absolute Value (g/day) | ||||||||||||||||
Available carbohydrate | 151.7 | 28.9 | 141.9 ** | 29.2 | 188.1 | 28.0 | 173.9 *** | 25.8 | 295.2 | 63.2 | 258.2 *** | 39.7 | 293.3 | 62.5 | 238.8 *** | 43.2 |
Starch | 61.1 | 22.5 | 55.6 * | 19.8 | 116.4 | 21.1 | 107.8 *** | 19.7 | 206.0 | 50.4 | 176.3 *** | 30.3 | 203.4 | 48.3 | 153.8 *** | 31.5 |
Total sugar | 47.5 | 16.4 | 46.1 | 16.9 | 57.5 | 12.6 | 53.0 *** | 10.6 | 68.7 | 19.7 | 64.1 *** | 15.8 | 62.2 | 24.0 | 64.5 | 20.4 |
Sucrose | 19.5 | 9.6 | 18.2 | 9.0 | 25.0 | 6.5 | 22.9 *** | 4.9 | 29.3 | 10.8 | 27.7 | 8.4 | 31.5 | 15.6 | 34.0 | 12.9 |
Fructose | 7.8 | 4.3 | 7.6 | 5.4 | 10.0 | 3.7 | 9.3 | 2.7 | 11.1 | 3.8 | 10.3 ** | 4.0 | 10.1 | 4.3 | 9.9 | 4.0 |
Naturally occurring Sugar | 30.1 | 11.9 | 27.9 | 9.8 | 30.0 | 5.8 | 27.3 *** | 5.5 | 35.9 | 10.1 | 33.8 *** | 8.1 | 26.5 | 11.5 | 28.8 * | 11.3 |
Free sugar | 17.4 | 11.9 | 18.2 | 12.7 | 27.4 | 9.3 | 25.6 * | 7.1 | 32.8 | 13.6 | 30.3 ** | 10.3 | 35.7 | 19.0 | 35.7 | 13.7 |
Energy-Adjusted Value (% of Energy) | ||||||||||||||||
Available carbohydrate | 54.2 | 6.4 | 54.4 | 6.4 | 53.0 | 2.9 | 52.9 | 2.8 | 52.5 | 3.2 | 51.7 *** | 3.1 | 50.5 | 6.3 | 51.0 | 3.8 |
Starch | 32.9 | 6.9 | 32.5 | 6.4 | 32.8 | 3.7 | 32.8 | 3.0 | 36.6 | 4.2 | 35.3 *** | 3.4 | 35.1 | 5.6 | 33.0 *** | 4.6 |
Total sugar | 17.0 | 5.3 | 17.5 | 5.2 | 16.2 | 2.9 | 16.1 | 2.8 | 12.3 | 2.9 | 12.8 ** | 2.6 | 10.7 | 4.0 | 13.6 *** | 3.4 |
Sucrose | 6.9 | 3.2 | 6.9 | 3.2 | 7.0 | 1.6 | 6.9 | 1.2 | 5.2 | 1.6 | 5.5 ** | 1.4 | 5.4 | 2.4 | 7.1 *** | 2.2 |
Fructose | 2.8 | 1.5 | 2.9 | 1.8 | 2.8 | 1.0 | 2.9 | 0.8 | 2.0 | 0.6 | 2.1 * | 0.7 | 1.8 | 0.8 | 2.1 *** | 0.8 |
Naturally occurring sugar | 10.8 | 4.3 | 10.7 | 3.4 | 8.5 | 1.7 | 8.4 | 1.6 | 6.4 | 1.5 | 6.8 *** | 1.3 | 4.6 | 1.8 | 6.1 *** | 2.1 |
Free sugar | 6.1 | 4.0 | 6.9 | 4.4 | 7.6 | 2.2 | 7.7 | 1.9 | 5.8 | 2.1 | 6.0 | 1.9 | 6.1 | 3.2 | 7.4 *** | 2.4 |
≥10% of energy intake from free sugar (%) | 15.3 | 21.1 | 12.9 | 11.6 | 4.1 | 3.1 | 8.7 | 13.3 | ||||||||
≥5% of energy intake from free sugar (%) | 51.4 | 59.5 | 90.9 | 92.1 | 61.6 | 68.8* | 55.6 | 87.8 *** |
Nutrients | Food Groups cd | Toddlers (Aged 18–35 Months) (n = 368) | Preschool Children (Aged 3–6 Years) (n = 376) | Schoolchildren (Aged 8–14 Years) (n = 915) | Adults (Aged 20–69 Years) (n = 392) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Available carbohydrate | Rice and grains | 42.5 | 39.3 | 46.4 | 44.5 |
Confectionaries | 11.7 | 13.5 | 10.0 | 9.7 | |
Fruits | 8.4 | 6.3 | 3.2 | 3.2 | |
Dairy products | 8.0 | 5.1 | 4.5 | 1.7 | |
Bread | 4.7 | 7.1 | 8.1 | 6.9 | |
Noodle | 2.6 | 5.2 | 6.6 | 8.1 | |
Others | 22.1 | 23.4 | 21.1 | 25.8 | |
Starch | Rice and grains | 65.4 | 58.8 | 62.3 | 61.2 |
Confectionaries | 11.3 | 11.3 | 7.7 | 7.8 | |
Bread | 6.9 | 10.0 | 10.6 | 9.2 | |
Noodle | 4.1 | 7.7 | 8.8 | 11.4 | |
Others | 12.4 | 12.3 | 10.6 | 10.4 | |
Total sugar | Dairy products | 22.7 | 15.6 | 17.5 | 6.1 |
Fruits | 20.9 | 16.9 | 10.0 | 10.3 | |
Confectionaries | 14.5 | 19.6 | 17.6 | 17.5 | |
Vegetables | 10.8 | 9.7 | 13.1 | 14.3 | |
Sugar-sweetened beverages e | 8.9 | 11.0 | 9.4 | 11.5 | |
Sugars and jams | 6.9 | 7.1 | 9.2 | 13.2 | |
Seasonings | 5.6 | 6.4 | 9.0 | 10.9 | |
Others | 9.7 | 13.6 | 14.1 | 16.2 | |
Sucrose | Confectionaries | 27.3 | 32.5 | 29.0 | 26.2 |
Fruits | 24.9 | 18.0 | 12.0 | 11.2 | |
Sugars and jams | 16.3 | 15.5 | 21.5 | 24.0 | |
Sugar-sweetened beverages e | 9.3 | 10.3 | 8.7 | 11.6 | |
Vegetables | 7.7 | 6.3 | 7.6 | 6.6 | |
Others | 14.5 | 17.4 | 21.2 | 20.4 | |
Fructose | Fruits | 39.3 | 30.8 | 18.6 | 17.1 |
Vegetables | 27.5 | 24.6 | 37.9 | 37.7 | |
Sugar-sweetened beverages e | 9.9 | 13.5 | 12.2 | 10.7 | |
Bread | 5.4 | 7.7 | 10.5 | 10.7 | |
Fruit juices | 5.1 | 7.7 | 3.5 | 2.7 | |
Seasonings | 3.5 | 5.1 | 7.0 | 8.0 | |
Others | 9.2 | 10.7 | 10.3 | 13.1 | |
Naturally occurring sugar | Dairy products | 33.5 | 25.9 | 27.9 | 10.9 |
Fruits | 30.6 | 28.0 | 16.1 | 17.8 | |
Vegetables | 16.8 | 17.9 | 23.8 | 29.8 | |
Seasonings | 3.4 | 4.7 | 7.6 | 9.3 | |
Bread | 3.0 | 5.9 | 7.5 | 8.6 | |
Others | 12.6 | 17.7 | 17.1 | 23.6 | |
Free sugar | Confectionaries | 33.5 | 34.4 | 30.3 | 26.2 |
Sugars and jams | 22.0 | 17.9 | 23.6 | 26.5 | |
Sugar-sweetened beverages e | 16.3 | 18.4 | 14.7 | 15.6 | |
Seasonings | 12.5 | 11.6 | 14.3 | 15.9 | |
Others | 15.7 | 17.7 | 17.1 | 15.9 |
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Fujiwara, A.; Murakami, K.; Asakura, K.; Uechi, K.; Sugimoto, M.; Wang, H.-C.; Masayasu, S.; Sasaki, S. Estimation of Starch and Sugar Intake in a Japanese Population Based on a Newly Developed Food Composition Database. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1474. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101474
Fujiwara A, Murakami K, Asakura K, Uechi K, Sugimoto M, Wang H-C, Masayasu S, Sasaki S. Estimation of Starch and Sugar Intake in a Japanese Population Based on a Newly Developed Food Composition Database. Nutrients. 2018; 10(10):1474. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101474
Chicago/Turabian StyleFujiwara, Aya, Kentaro Murakami, Keiko Asakura, Ken Uechi, Minami Sugimoto, Han-Chieh Wang, Shizuko Masayasu, and Satoshi Sasaki. 2018. "Estimation of Starch and Sugar Intake in a Japanese Population Based on a Newly Developed Food Composition Database" Nutrients 10, no. 10: 1474. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101474