The Identification of the Factors Related to Household Food Insecurity among Indigenous People (Orang Asli) in Peninsular Malaysia under Traditional Food Systems
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Location
2.2. Informants
2.3. Ethical Clearance and Permissions
2.4. Data Collection
- Are you facing any problems in obtaining sufficient food?
- (Based on Question 1) If yes, can you elaborate the problem(s) you are facing by providing a suitable example(s)?
- (Based on Question 2) How frequent is/are the problem(s)?
2.5. Quality Control
2.6. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of the Informants
3.2. Factors Related to Household Food Insecurity
3.2.1. The Failure in Agriculture
“The products were eaten by the foxes and the birds. Yes. Today, when I went there (farm), everything seemed fine. However, tomorrow or the day after, when I went there, the wild boars might have eaten the products. I guard my farm myself. I do the patrol around the farm. I find the rattans, cut the bamboos, to build a guard post. I guard it myself. There are animals out there which eat our products. Sometimes, when we plant tuber roots, the wild boars eat it. As for pumpkins, the insects from the forest eat them. The insects eat… the grasshoppers eat the shoots of the tuber plants until nothing is left behind.”
“It (wild boar) eats the tapioca. It eats the sweet potatoes. It eats the banana tree. If we plant the pineapple, it also eats the pineapple. Nowadays, there are many wild boars.
“For example, I really do not own any piece of land. It is not belonged to me. Whatever farms you can see here are all belonged to the other people.
“Not enough land. Only have a small piece of land. Do not have new land because all have been cleared up to become the (domestic) farms.”
3.2.2. The Ineffectiveness of Traditional Food-Seeking Methods
“(Leaves) at six o’clock in the morning, comes back at seven o’clock, or eight o’clock at night. If we travel through the forest at seven in the morning, will come back at three or four in the afternoon.”
“When my husband travels to the forest, there are a lot of challenges awaiting him, such as the presence of elephants, tigers, snakes, and centipedes.”
“Searching for food is not easy. Sometimes, the food that we wish to find is available, but sometimes it is not. Especially when we go fishing. Sometimes the fish bites, and sometimes we have to go back home with empty hands.”
“The road… the road is covered with mud. We need to go through the bushes too. Sometimes, the walking path is covered by stones. Climbing up and down, up and down the hills.”
“It (the fern shoot) is not available here, very hard to find. Want to eat (wild) vegetables, but it is not available. (The place with fern shoots is) only reachable by a motorcycle as it is far away. Do not have (wild vegetables here), if you find at surrounding here, (you) only manage to get a few, three or four sticks. Not enough to eat.”
“Difficult. It was quite easy in the old days, but now, it is hard. Due to some people who conduct the mining activities, and because of that, the natural products of the forest are no longer available. At the side (of the forest) where people conduct the tin ore mining activities, the forest will be demolished.”
“It is not sold at high price, not very high and sometimes it is sold in low price. Take the herbs with medical value from the forest as an example, we get three Ringgit fifty cents for a kilogram. If we manage to get a few kilograms, we get a few dozen Ringgit.”
“Only my husband knows about the price of the natural commodities. The price was only known before though. Nowadays, no one has been requesting for natural herbs. For example, people requested Tongkat Ali (a traditional medicine) only during the old days. It is no longer requested now.”
“I do not have an equipment for fishing. How can I go fishing? (Besides that, it is) hard to get wild animals. No gun is available for hunting. (We) do not have an equipment (for the activities).”
“It is because we do not have the equipment for fishing. We do not have the gun for hunting.”
3.2.3. Water Issues
“For me, if I want to declare the water supply that I got is clean is not true. (The water) may be considered moderately clean. The problem is due to land clearing and logging, water is affected and is no longer clean. When it rains, water looks muddy.”
“Water supply? We are not satisfied with it. Because when some people performing logging activities, the water will be exposed to pollution. When it rains… during the dry seasons, the water looks a bit clear. However, when it rains, it looks a bit muddy. Therefore, it is hard for us to get obtain a clean water supply. Water supplies cannot be continued as sometimes the pipe is blocked during the rain and we need to go repair it. Therefore, the actual problem is the blocked pipe, not the water.”
3.2.4. Weather
“Due to the raining season, we become jobless. It is hard to find a job. Some of the available jobs are related to farm works, such as rubber tapping. These jobs are usually pursued through contracts and recruits are unneeded due to rain. Workers are recruited only during dry seasons. This is why sometimes earning money is not an easy task for us.”
“A bit tough when the rainy season arrives. Cannot earn money. For example, we want to search vegetables or want to harvest the banana for sale are also restricted, people (traders) do not want the products. In addition, people (traders) do not travel here to pick up the products.”
“Dry season. The leaves wither instead of flourishing. The land is dry, but many still carry out agricultural works. Harvesting can be done, but the plants will not fully grow.”
“Water, sometimes do not have water. The water flow is slow. The tuber roots are also dying. Because of the heat.”
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- RTI International. Current and Prospective Scope of Hunger and Food Security in America: A Review of Current Research; Center for Health and Environment Modeling: Chapel Hill, NC, USA, 2014; Available online: https://www.rti.org/sites/default/files/resources/full_hunger_report_final_07-24-14.pdf (accessed on 22 December 2017).
- Willows, N.D.; Veugelers, P.; Raine, K.; Kuhle, S. Prevalence and sociodemographic risk factors related to household food security in Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Public Health Nutr. 2008, 12, 1150–1156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Performance, 2010 Report: Detailed Analyses; AIHW: Canberra, Australia, 2011. Available online: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/indigenous-australians/indigenous-health-performance-framework-2010/contents/table-of-contents (accessed 28 February 2018).
- Zalilah, M.S.; Tham, B.L. Food security and child nutritional status among orang asli (Temuan) households in Hulu Langat, Selangor. Med. J. Malays. 2002, 57, 36–50. [Google Scholar]
- Nurfahilin, T.; Norhasmah, S. Factors and coping strategies related to food insecurity and nutritional status among Orang Asli women in Malaysia. Int. J. Public Health Clin. Sci. 2015, 2, 55–66. [Google Scholar]
- Chong, S.P.; Geetah, A.; Norhasmah, S. Household food insecurity, diet quality, and weight status among indigenous women (Mah Meri) in Peninsular Malaysia. Nutr. Res. Pract. 2018, 12, 135–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Haemamalar, K.; Zalilah, M.S.; Neng Azhanie, A. Nutritional status of Orang Asli (Che Wang Tribe) Adults in Krau Wildlife Reserve, Pahang. Malays. J. Nutr. 2010, 16, 55–68. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Chua, E.; Zalilah, M.; Chin, Y.; Norhasmah, S. Dietary diversity is associated with nutritional status of Orang Asli children in Krau Wildlife Reserve, Pahang. Malays J. Nutr. 2012, 18, 1–13. [Google Scholar]
- Kuhnlein, H.V.; Smitasiri, S.; Yesudas, S.; Bhattacharjee, L.; Li, D.; Ahmed, S. Documenting Traditional Food Systems of Indigenous Peoples: International Case Studies. Guidelines for Procedures; Centre for Indigenous Peoples’ Nutrition and Environment: Anne de Bellevue, QC, Canada, 2006; Available online: https://www.mcgill.ca/cine/files/cine/manual.pdf (accessed on 23 December 2017).
- Kardooni, R.; Fatimah, K.; Siti Rohani, Y.; Siti Hajar, Y. Traditional knowledge of orang asli on forests in Peninsular Malaysia. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 2014, 13, 283–291. [Google Scholar]
- Kuhnlein, H.V.; Receveur, O. Dietary change and traditional food systems of indigenous peoples. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 1996, 16, 417–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Capone, R.; Bilali, H.E.; Debs, P.; Cardone, G.; Driouech, N. Food system sustainability and food security: Connecting the dots. J. Food Secur. 2014, 2, 13–22. [Google Scholar]
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). SAVE FOOD: Global Initiative on Food Loss and Waste Reduction. Available online: http://www.fao.org/save-food/resources/keyfindings/en/ (accessed 12 September 2018).
- Food and Agriculture Association (FAO). Food Security; Development Economic Division, FAO: Rome, Italy, 2006; Available online: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/faoitaly/documents/pdf/pdf_Food_Security_Cocept_Note.pdf (accessed 15 August 2017).
- Department of Orang Asli Development (JAKOA). Data Banci Orang Asli. 2010; unpublished. [Google Scholar]
- Yin, R.K. Case Study Research. Design and Methods; SAGE Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1994; ISBN 978-1-48332-224-7. [Google Scholar]
- Department of Statistics Malaysia. Population and Housing Census of Malaysia 2000; Monograph Series No. 3; Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia, Department of Statistics: Putrajaya, Malaysia, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Economic Planning Unit (EPU). Perangkaan pendapatan dan kemiskinan isi rumah sepintas lalu. Available online: http://www.epu.gov.my/documents/10124/597ec4c8-2962-40de-9049-0f41d280b915 (accessed on 4 April 2016).
- Morse, J.M. The Significance of Saturation. Qual. Health Res. 1995, 5, 147–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Frongillo, E.A.; Nanama, S.; Wolfe, W.S. Technique Guide to Developing a Direct, Experience-Based Measurement Tool for Household Food Insecurity; Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance, Academy for Educational Development: Washington, DC, USA, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Guion, L.A.; Diehl, D.C.; McDonald, D. Triangulation: Establishing the Validity of Qualitative Studies; Department of Family, Youth and Community Sciences, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida: Gainesville, FL, USA, 2011; Available online: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fy394 (accessed on 26 May 2014).
- Braun, V.; Clarke, V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual. Res. Psychol. 2006, 3, 77–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Riessman, C.K. Narrative Analysis; SAGE Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1993; ISBN 978-0-80394-754-2. [Google Scholar]
- Satari, S.Z.; Zubairi, Y.Z.; Hussin, A.G.; Hassan, S.F. Some statistical characteristic of Malaysian wind direction recorded at maximum wind speed: 1999–2008. Sains Malays. 2015, 44, 1521–1530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Knuth, L. The Right to Adequate Food and Indigenous Peoples. How Can the Right to Food Benefit Indigenous Peoples; Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): Rome, Italy, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Martens, T.M.; Cidro, J.; Hart, M.A.; McLachlan, S. Understanding indigenous food sovereignty through an indigenous research paradigm. J. Indig. Soc. Dev. 2016, 5, 18–37. [Google Scholar]
- Zakari, S.; Ying, L.; Song, B. Factors influencing household food security in West Africa: The case of southern Niger. Sustainability 2014, 6, 1191–1202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gomes, A.G. Indigenous Peoples’ Movements: The Orang Asli of Malaysia. Available online: https://iias.asia/sites/default/files/IIAS_NL35_10.pdf (accessed on 4 July 2018).
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Special Event on Impact of Climate Change, Pests and Diseases on Food Security and Poverty Reduction. 31st Session of the Committee on World Food Security; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2003; Available online: http://www.fsnnetwork.org/sites/default/files/impact_of_climate_change_pests_and_diseases_on_food_security_and_poverty_reduction_-_background_document.pdf (accessed on 23 November 2017).
- Kirimi, L.; Gitau, R.; Olunga, M. Household Food Security and Commercialization among Smallholder Farmers in Kenya. In Proceedings of the 2013 African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE) Fourth International Conference, Hammamet, Tunisia, 22–25 September 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Hansen, M.C.; Potapov, P.V.; Moore, R.; Hancher, M.; Turubanova, S.A.; Tyukavina, A.; Thau, D.; Stehman, S.V.; Goetz, S.J.; Loveland, T.R.; et al. High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change. Science 2013, 342, 850–853. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Schuster, R.C.; Wein, E.E.; Dickson, C.; Chan, H.M. Importance of traditional foods for the food security of two First Nations communities in the Yukon, Canada. Int. J. Circumpolar Health 2011, 70, 286–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Egeland, G.M.; Charbonneau-Roberts, G.; kuluguqtuq, J.; Kilabuk, J.; Okalik, L.; Soueida, R.; Kuhnlein, H.V. Back to the future: Using traditional food and knowledge to promote a healthy future among Inuit. In Indigenous People’s Food Systems: The Many Dimensions of Culture, Diversity, and Environment for Nutrition and Health; Kuhnlein, H.V., Erasmus, B., Spigelski, D., Eds.; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2009; pp. 9–22. ISBN 978-92-5106071-1. [Google Scholar]
- Carol Yong; Sarawakians Access; Peninsular Malaysia Orang Asli Village Network. Deforestation Drivers and Human Rights in Malaysia; Forest Peoples Programme: Moreton-in-March, UK, 2014; Available online: https://rightsanddeforestation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Malaysia-deforestation-drivers-and-human-rights.pdf (accessed on 31 July 2018).
- Endicott, K. Malaysia’s Original People. Past, Present and Future of the Orang Asli; National University of Singapore Press: Singapore, 2016; ISBN 978-9971-69-861-4. [Google Scholar]
- Halder, J.N.; Nazrul Islam, M. Water pollution and its impact on the human health. J. Environ. Hum. 2015, 2, 36–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tangang, F.T.; Liew, J.N.; Salimun, E.; Kwan, M.S.; Loh, J.L.; Mohumad, H. Climate change and variability over Malaysia: Gaps in science and research information. Sains Malays. 2012, 41, 1355–1366. [Google Scholar]
- Bahiigwa, G.B.A. Household food insecurity in Uganda: An empirical analysis. East. Afr. J. Rural Dev. 2002, 18, 8–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Niles, M.T.; Salermo, J.D. A cross-country analysis of climate shocks and smallholder food insecurity. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0192928. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Climate Change and Food Security: A Framework Document; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2008; Available online: http://www.fao.org/forestry/15538-079b31d45081fe9c3dbc6ff34de4807e4.pdf (accessed on 23 December 2017).
Variable | Count (n) | Percentage (%) | Median (Range) |
---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 32 (20–49) | ||
20–29 | 26 | 42.6 | |
30–39 | 22 | 36.1 | |
40–49 | 13 | 21.3 | |
Ethnicity | |||
Senoi (Temiar) | 20 | 32.8 | |
Proto-Malay (Temuan) | 20 | 32.8 | |
Negrito (Jahai) | 21 | 34.4 | |
Religion | |||
Islam | 27 | 44.3 | |
Christianity | 8 | 13.1 | |
Animism | 26 | 42.6 | |
Marital Status | |||
Married | 57 | 93.4 | |
Widowed | 4 | 6.6 | |
Number of Children | 3 (1–13) | ||
≤2 | 24 | 39.3 | |
3–5 | 19 | 31.1 | |
6–8 | 13 | 21.3 | |
≥9 | 5 | 8.2 | |
Education Level of Informants | 1.5 (0–11.0) | ||
No formal education | 25 | 41.0 | |
Primary school | 21 | 34.4 | |
Secondary school | 15 | 24.6 | |
Education Level of Spouses | 2.5 (0–11.0) | ||
No formal education | 24 | 39.3 | |
Primary school | 26 | 42.6 | |
Secondary school | 10 | 16.4 | |
Do not know | 1 | 1.6 | |
Occupation of Respondents | |||
Skilled agricultural, forestry, and fishery worker | 12 | 19.7 | |
Plant and machine-operators and assembler | 1 | 1.6 | |
Housewife | 48 | 78.7 | |
Occupation of Spouses | |||
Skilled agricultural, forestry, and fishery worker | 52 | 85.2 | |
Craft and related trade worker | 1 | 1.6 | |
Plant and machine-operators and assembler | 3 | 4.9 | |
Elementary occupation | 1 | 1.6 | |
Divorced | 1 | 1.6 | |
Passed away | 3 | 4.9 | |
Monthly household income (MYR *) | 200.0 (50.0–750.0 †) | ||
Income per capita (MYR *) | 41.7 (8.3–250.0) | ||
Expenses of food and beverage (MYR *) | 100.0 (20.0–250.0) |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Law, L.S.; Norhasmah, S.; Gan, W.Y.; Siti Nur’Asyura, A.; Mohd Nasir, M.T. The Identification of the Factors Related to Household Food Insecurity among Indigenous People (Orang Asli) in Peninsular Malaysia under Traditional Food Systems. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1455. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101455
Law LS, Norhasmah S, Gan WY, Siti Nur’Asyura A, Mohd Nasir MT. The Identification of the Factors Related to Household Food Insecurity among Indigenous People (Orang Asli) in Peninsular Malaysia under Traditional Food Systems. Nutrients. 2018; 10(10):1455. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101455
Chicago/Turabian StyleLaw, Leh Shii, Sulaiman Norhasmah, Wan Ying Gan, Adznam Siti Nur’Asyura, and Mohd Taib Mohd Nasir. 2018. "The Identification of the Factors Related to Household Food Insecurity among Indigenous People (Orang Asli) in Peninsular Malaysia under Traditional Food Systems" Nutrients 10, no. 10: 1455. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101455