First Open-Coast HF Radar Observations of a 2-Phase Volcanic Tsunami, Tonga 2022
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Tsunami Generation Mechanisms
2.2. Radar Tsunami Detection
- Within each band, if the velocity increment over two consecutive time intervals (typically 2 min each) has increased/decreased by an amount greater than a preset level, the q-factor for that band is incremented/decremented.
- If the maximum/minimum velocities for neighboring bands coincide within a preset value for consecutive time intervals, the q-factor level is further increased/decreased for those bands.
- Finally, if the velocity has increased/decreased over two consecutive time intervals for three adjacent area bands, the q-factor level is further incremented/decremented for those bands.
2.3. Radar Site Locations and Offshore Water Depths
2.4. The Effect of Water Depth on Tsunami Parameters
3. Results
3.1. Radar Tsunami Detection on the U.S. West Coast and Florida: Band Velocities and q-Factors
3.2. Tide Gauge Water Levels
3.3. Barometric Pressure Observations
3.4. Tsunami Arrival Times
3.5. Tsunami Wave Height
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Appendix B
References
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GCVE | 38°34.031′N, 123°19.893′W |
BML1 | 38°19.039′N, 123°04.348′W |
ESTR | 35°27.585′N, 120°58.658′W |
DCSR | 35°12.147′N, 120°50.765′W |
LUIS | 35°09.649′N, 120°45.507′W |
FBK1 | 34°52.185′N, 120°37.272′W |
COP1 | 34°24.470′N, 119°52.700′W |
SSD1 | 34°25.145′N, 119°35.798′W |
NAPL | 26°09.729′N, 081°48.632′W |
Site | Distance from Tonga | Lamb Wave Arrival Hours UTC | Radar Phase 1 Arrival Hours UTC | Radar Phase 2 Arrival Hours UTC | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
km | Expected | Observed | Observed | Expected | Observed | |
GCVE | 8513 | 11.95 | 11.95 | 13.2 | 16.49 | 16.53 |
BML1 | 8512 | 11.95 | 11.95 | 13.9 | 16.49 | 16.35 |
ESTR | 8455 | 11.90 | 11.9 | 13.9 | 16.41 | 16.42 |
DCSR | 8446 | 11.89 | 11.9 | - | 16.40 | 16.21 |
LUIS | 8450 | 11.90 | 11.9 | 13.9 | 16.40 | 16.67 |
FBK1 | 8440 | 11.89 | 11.9 | 12.4 | 16.39 | 16.07 |
COP1 | 8462 | 11.91 | 11.9 | - | 16.42 | 15.96 |
SSD1 | 8483 | 11.93 | 11.9 | 14.2 | 16.45 | 16.25 |
NAPL | 11,341 | 14.51 | 14.4 | 17.4 | - | - |
Radar Site | Avg Water Depth | Initial Wave Period | Max. del-v | Max. Wave Height | Est Wave Height, d = 5 m | Initial Tide Gauge Wave Height | Tide Gauge Site |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
m | h | cm/s, pp | m, pp | m | m | ||
BML1 | 80 | 0.9 | 13 | 0.37 | 0.74 | 0.6 | Point Reyes |
LUIS | 70 | 1.0 | 12 | 0.32 | 0.62 | 1.7 | Port San Luis |
FBK1 | 50 | 0.8 | 15 | 0.34 | 0.61 | 0.7 | Estimate |
SSD1 | 45 | 0.8 | 8 | 0.17 | 0.30 | 0.3 | Santa Barbara |
GCVE | 90 | 0.7 | 7.5 | 0.23 | 0.47 | 1.0 | Arena Cove |
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Lipa, B.; Barrick, D.; Whelan, C.; Losekoot, M.; Parikh, H. First Open-Coast HF Radar Observations of a 2-Phase Volcanic Tsunami, Tonga 2022. Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2325. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15092325
Lipa B, Barrick D, Whelan C, Losekoot M, Parikh H. First Open-Coast HF Radar Observations of a 2-Phase Volcanic Tsunami, Tonga 2022. Remote Sensing. 2023; 15(9):2325. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15092325
Chicago/Turabian StyleLipa, Belinda, Donald Barrick, Chad Whelan, Marcel Losekoot, and Hardik Parikh. 2023. "First Open-Coast HF Radar Observations of a 2-Phase Volcanic Tsunami, Tonga 2022" Remote Sensing 15, no. 9: 2325. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15092325