Sustainability-Oriented Student Perspectives on University–Government–Kindergarten Collaboration in Early Childhood Teacher Education

Abstract

This study examines the effectiveness of the University–Government–Kindergarten Collaboration (UGK) model in training early childhood teacher candidates (TCs), using the Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) framework to assess its role in enhancing TCs’ competencies. Data were collected through a survey of 210 TCs and in-depth interviews with 12 participants. The findings indicate a structural imbalance in UGK: while university–kindergarten collaboration shows some effectiveness, the lack of governmental leadership weakens tripartite synergy. From an ESD perspective, although UGK fosters basic collaborative skills, it does not systematically develop higher-order ESD competencies such as systems thinking, normative awareness, critical thinking, and strategic action. By shifting the focus from institutional to student experience, this study offers a new analytical framework for teacher education models. It concludes that optimizing UGK requires stronger governmental coordination, deeper university–kindergarten cooperation, and explicit integration of ESD core competencies throughout the training system.

1. Introduction

In an era marked by globalization and uncertainty, ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education-aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) [1]-has emerged as a global consensus and key driver for the international community to address future challenges and promote sustainable development [2,3]. However, worldwide disparities in early education quality and shortages of qualified teachers [4] remain major obstacles to achieving this ambitious goal. In this context, cultivating outstanding teachers equipped for future education has transcended national boundaries, emerging as a strategic priority with global implications. Educators of the future must not only possess deep professional expertise but also develop core competencies that enable them to navigate complex societal changes, foster inclusive growth, and promote sustainable lifestyles [5]. To address the long-standing global challenge in teacher education often described as the “theory-practice divide”, the collaborative education model integrating universities, governments, and kindergartens (UGK) is gaining prominence internationally as a key innovative pathway [6,7,8]. This model aims to move beyond superficial cooperation by constructing a strategically synergistic ecosystem in which knowledge creation, policy support, and professional practice are deeply interwoven, thereby providing comprehensive support for cultivating a teaching workforce capable of leading future educational transformation.

Shifting from a global perspective to the Chinese context, the UGK collaborative model holds significant practical relevance for advancing China’s efforts to build a strong education system and a distinctive, high-quality early childhood education sector. Crucially, it addresses the central paradigm shift currently underway: transitioning from a phase of rapid scale expansion to one focused on sustained quality enhancement. It serves as a crucial mechanism in transitioning China’s early childhood education from “scale expansion” to “quality enhancement” Within this tripartite framework, the government plays a leading and coordinating role. It not only creates an enabling institutional environment-through setting teacher training standards, providing financial support, and establishing quality monitoring systems-but also assumes a “meta-governance” function [9]-that is, providing overarching strategic steering and systemic coordination-to ensure collaborative efforts are aligned with national educational modernization objectives. Universities undertake the responsibility for theoretical innovation and professional leadership. By engaging in knowledge production, curriculum development, and the cultivation of core competencies in TCs, they translate cutting-edge educational theories into transferable pedagogical wisdom and provide academic grounding and evidence-based support for collaborative practice [10]. Kindergartens serve as bases for professional practice and iterative improvement. Beyond offering authentic educational settings and participating in curriculum design and practical mentoring, they function as vital sources for evaluating training outcomes and informing theoretical innovation, thereby facilitating the contextual adaptation and continuous refinement of educational theory in practice [11]. This collaborative framework reflects the distinct professional profile of early childhood teacher preparation in China. Unlike the subject-specific focus of primary and secondary teacher education [12], it prioritizes an integrated “educare” approach, emphasizing practice-oriented core competencies: designing and facilitating play-based activities; observing and interpreting young children’s behavior; fostering home–kindergarten–community collaboration; and supporting inclusive education [13]. This model lays the groundwork for nurturing future contributors to China’s development, aligning with the national policy imperative of shifting from expanding access to ensuring high quality in early childhood education.

However, despite numerous policy initiatives and academic discussions, the actual effectiveness of UGK cooperation remains a its actual effectiveness remains under-explored and poorly understood. Existing evaluations predominantly adopt an “institutional perspective” from the standpoint of universities, governments, or kindergarten principals, focusing on aspects such as policy implementation, resource allocation, or management efficiency [14,15]. As core participants in the collaborative process and direct bearers of its outcomes, the experiences, perceptions, and gains of teacher candidates (TCs) themselves have long been systematically overlooked [16,17,18]. Their “student perspective” serves as an invaluable source for assessing the authenticity, effectiveness, and even sustainability of collaborative models. The absence of this key stakeholder makes it difficult for current research to comprehensively and profoundly reveal the genuine challenges and potential value of UGK collaboration [19]. To address this critical research gap, this study shifts its focus to TCs, aiming to conduct a systematic “bottom-up” evaluation of the UGK collaborative model through their firsthand experiences. Specifically, this study proposes the following three research questions:

• What are the key dimensions of UGK collaboration as perceived by TCs, and how are they manifested?
• From the perspective of student experiences, what are the key elements in the current UGK collaboration model?
• How do the collaborative outcomes perceived by students align with the ESD core competencies framework based on analysis?

It should be noted that this study adopts a reflective approach in applying the capacity framework for Education for ESD. ESD aims to cultivate learners’ key competencies required to drive sustainable development in society, the environment, and the economy. These primarily include systems thinking competency, anticipatory competency, normative competency, strategic competency, collaboration competency, critical thinking competency, self-awareness competency, and integrated problem-solving competency (UNESCO, 2017) [20]. The ESD framework was not employed as the initial theoretical foundation of the study to construct hypotheses, nor was it directly used to assess the ESD competency levels of individual students. Upon completing the empirical analysis of student experiences, we introduced the ESD competency framework as an interpretive and reflective tool to further examine the potential contributions and limitations of UGK collaboration in cultivating future-oriented educators for sustainable development. Through this approach, this study not only aims to provide evidence-based insights for optimizing UGK collaboration but also seeks to foster a deeper dialog on how to build a truly sustainable teacher education system.

2. Literature Review

2.1. The Ideal Vision of UGK Collaborative Models: Theoretical Projections and Policy Advocacy

The emergence of the UGK collaborative model stems from a reflection on the limitations of traditional teacher training approaches. Ecosystem theory posits that teachers’ professional growth occurs within a nested system composed of multiple interactive contexts [21,22]. The UGK collaboration consciously seeks to establish a supportive macro-system that fosters the positive development of TCs through the theoretical guidance of universities, institutional safeguards from the government, and practical nurturing from kindergartens. The theory of collaborative governance further demonstrates the advantages of diverse stakeholders establishing partnerships and integrating resources to achieve shared objectives [23,24]. At the policy level, the UGK partnership is viewed with high expectations as a key pathway to achieving SDG 4 and enhancing the quality of early childhood education. Its ideal state is to form a development community characterized by “shared benefits, shared responsibilities, and shared teacher preparation” [25].

2.2. Perspective Limitations in Empirical Research: The Systematic Absence of Student Agency

In contrast to this ideal scenario, existing empirical research on UGK collaboration exhibits significant perspective bias. The vast majority of literature adopts an “institutional perspective” or “organizational perspective”: university researchers focus on curriculum integration and academic output; government reports emphasize policy coverage and program effectiveness; while kindergarten administrators primarily explore how practicum arrangements impact facility operations [26,27]. Although these studies offer valuable organizational-level insights, they consistently portray TCs as passive empty vessels or as products on an assembly line, thereby marginalizing their voices and experiences as active learners and core stakeholders. This systemic absence of a “student perspective” results in a superficial understanding of how UGK collaboration actually impact their educational objectives—TCs—making it difficult to grasp the genuine motivational mechanisms and emotional experiences within the collaborative process. This gap constitutes the fundamental impetus for formulating Research Question 1 and Research Question 2 in this study.

2.3. Deepening Evaluation Criteria: The Missing Link Between Surface Outputs and Sustainable Development Competencies

Further examination reveals that existing research has limitations in the criteria used to evaluate the effectiveness of UGK cooperation. Evaluation metrics tend to focus on superficial outputs, such as the number of cooperation agreements signed, the rate of field placement sites established, and student employment rates [28,29,30]. While these quantitative indicators are easy to measure, they fail to effectively gauge the impact of collaboration on deeper dimensions such as TCs’ intrinsic competencies, critical thinking, value formation, and complex problem-solving abilities. This is precisely the core concern of the concept of Education for ESD.

Logically, the authentic and complex learning situations provided by UGK collaboration should serve as an ideal setting for cultivating these ESD competencies. However, existing literature rarely consciously analyzes the correlation between students’ learning outcomes gained through UGK collaboration and the ESD competency framework. This lack of correlation prevents us from determining whether and to what extent the UGK collaboration has contributed to cultivating “sustainable teachers” capable of addressing future challenges. Therefore, introducing the ESD framework as a dimension for assessing the deeper value of cooperation becomes particularly necessary.

2.4. Positioning of This Study: Integrating Student Perspectives with ESD Reflective Lenses

In summary, existing research exhibits two gaps: first, the absence of a student perspective results in evaluations of collaborative effectiveness that lack depth and authenticity; second, the absence of in-depth assessments based on ESD competencies leaves judgments about the long-term value of collaboration without sufficient evidence.

This study aims to address both questions simultaneously. First, we place TCs’ experiences at the center of our inquiry. Through research methods including questionnaires and interviews, we systematically collect and analyze their perceptions of the UGK collaboration to reveal its key dimensions (addressing RQ1 and RQ2). Second, this study innovatively positions the ESD competency framework as an interpretive framework. Following the completion of the empirical analysis grounded in student experiences, the ESD framework will serve as a high-level dialog partner and reference point to examine the alignment and tensions between collaborative outcomes and the principles of education for sustainable development (responding to RQ3). This research design aims to achieve a more comprehensive and profound understanding of the UGK collaborative model, providing insights grounded in empirical evidence and theoretical depth for building a future-oriented, sustainable teacher education system.

3. Materials and Methods

This study was conducted in accordance with Article 32 of China’s “Ethical Review Measures for Life Sciences and Medical Research Involving Humans”, which stipulates that ethical review can be exempted for research that utilizes data obtained through non-interventional methods such as observation. The participants consisted of early childhood education TCs, all of whom were competent adults. Their participation was based on in-formed consent and their autonomous decision to partake in the survey. Individuals who consented proceeded to complete the questionnaire, whereas those who did not were free to close the survey link immediately. All interview content was used with participants’ con-sent and has been anonymized in presentation.

This study focuses on pre-service early childhood education teachers in China, primarily recruited from undergraduate institutions and vocational colleges. The research was conducted in three phases: the first phase involved finalizing the questionnaire content, including exploratory interviews for scale development and a pilot study with preliminary data analysis; the second phase consisted of distributing and collecting the formal questionnaire, followed by data analysis; the third phase entailed conducting in-depth interviews based on the outcomes of the data analysis.

3.1. Development of the Questionnaire Content

This study began with in-depth interviews conducted with three female senior-year undergraduate students majoring in Early Childhood Education, each possessing one semester of practicum experience. All three interviewees were female and aged 22. The interviews primarily focused on their reflections and recollections of their practicum experiences. Following approximately three hours of in-depth discussion, the researchers synthesized the content and preliminarily formulated 24 student-centered evaluation indicators for the UGK collaborative education model. Subsequently, an online questionnaire was distributed mainly to senior-year Early Childhood Education graduates from the researchers’ institution-all of whom had completed six months of practicum-to further refine the indicator system. This process resulted in a finalized framework consisting of four first-level dimensions (overall internal collaboration within each respective entity, university–kindergarten collaboration, university–government collaboration, and government-kindergarten collaboration) and 22 specific evaluation indicators (see

Table 1. Content of the 22 Items.

Item No.	Content
Q1	I perceive that the university demonstrates coordinated efforts across key stages such as student recruitment, talent cultivation, and career support for the Early Childhood Education (ECE) program.
Q2	I perceive that government departments value the ECE program and maintain orderly collaboration among various sectors such as finance and staffing.
Q3	I perceive that the kindergarten where ECE students complete their practicum is well-managed internally and possesses a strong organizational culture.
Q4	The curriculum of the university’s ECE program takes into account the actual conditions and needs of kindergarten operations.
Q5	The university and kindergartens share teaching resources, such as organizing kindergarten visits and inviting kindergarten teachers to deliver lectures at the university.
Q6	The university and kindergartens collaborate on teaching innovation initiatives.
Q7	In cultivating ECE professionals, the university emphasizes the practical competencies required in kindergarten settings.
Q8	During the training of ECE professionals, the university invites frontline kindergarten teachers or principals to participate in co-teaching activities.
Q9	The university and kindergartens emphasize interdisciplinary cooperation in training ECE professionals.
Q10	The university and kindergartens maintain open communication channels and strengthen exchanges in the process of training ECE professionals.
Q11	The government supports the development of the university’s ECE program, and the university collaborates with the government on projects related to ECE.
Q12	The university and government share resources, such as the university being involved in setting examination questions or conducting interviews for national or provincial-level ECE-related assessments.
Q13	The government adjusts policies related to ECE program development, such as modifying student enrollment quotas in response to changing societal demands.
Q14	The government monitors and evaluates the development of the university’s ECE program.
Q15	With government support, the university enhances the social influence of the ECE program.
Q16	Local governments and universities establish communication channels to share employment information, thereby reducing information barriers in job placement.
Q17	The government maintains close ties with kindergartens and provides direct support for ECE students’ practicum and employment.
Q18	When teaching resources from kindergartens are needed in the process of training ECE professionals, the government can provide necessary support.
Q19	The government conducts quality assessments of kindergartens to ensure the quality of practical training bases for ECE professionals.
Q20	The government strengthens process management in kindergartens, paying attention to the daily life, work, and professional development of ECE interns.
Q21	The government and kindergartens maintain effective communication channels and respond to the training needs of ECE professionals.
Q22	The government and kindergartens jointly conduct professional promotion activities to enhance the social recognition, professional identity, and public acknowledgment of ECE talent cultivation.

). The questionnaire comprises two main sections: basic information and the main body. The basic information section includes gender, type of institution, academic year, and practicum duration. The main body consists of the 22 indicators, for which respondents were asked to provide ratings using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“Strongly Disagree”) to 5 (“Strongly Agree”).

3.2. Distribution, Collection, and Data Analysis of the Formal Questionnaire

During the formal distribution phase, the researcher disseminated the questionnaire via a widely used Chinese online survey platform (Wen juan xing, equivalent to platforms like Survey Monkey). Access to participants was facilitated through faculty contacts at the researcher’s own university as well as cooperating vocational colleges. Respondents were given a two-week period to complete the questionnaire, ensuring adequate time for thoughtful consideration and response. The entire research process followed ethical procedures. First, inform students through their class group chat that they can click the link to complete the questionnaire. Alternatively, if they choose not to participate in the survey, they can simply close the link. Second, we included a brief introduction to the survey at the beginning of the questionnaire and informed students that completing it would be considered informed consent. All data would be kept strictly confidential and accessible only to the research team. Finally, the first author collected the questionnaire data through the website’s backend management system. Furthermore, all students were at least 18 years of age and completed the questionnaire with their informed consent, meeting the ethical requirements of the research.

After data collection, invalid responses were excluded based on two criteria: completion time under 45 s and extreme response patterns (e.g., rating only one item as 1 while all others as 5). This resulted in 210 valid responses (see

Table 2. Basic Information of Survey Questionnaire Sample (N = 210).

Category		Number of People	Proportion
Gender	Male	5	2.3%
	Female	205	97.7%
Your institution belongs to	undergraduate college	174	82.9%
	specialized college	36	17.1%
Your grade level is	Graduated	20	9.5%
	Graduating class (Class of 2025)	158	75.2%
	Junior year (Class of 2026)	32	15.3%
Do you have at least six months of practicum?	Yes	193	91.9%
	No (at least 3 months)	17	8.1%
Overall	-	210	100%

). This sample demonstrates notable representativeness within the population of TCs. First, a key strength of the sample is that all respondents possess at least three months of practicum experience, with the vast majority (91.9%) having completed long-term practicum of six months or more. This ensures that the participants are genuine “prospective teachers” with practical experience, whose feedback can effectively reflect the connection between theoretical training and practical application—making them highly relevant for a study focused on the UGK collaborative education model. Furthermore, the sample includes students from both undergraduate institutions and vocational colleges, the two main pathways for training early childhood education teachers in China. Their proportional distribution (82.9% undergraduate, 17.1% vocational) roughly mirrors the broader landscape of early childhood teacher preparation in Chinese higher education. Additionally, the sample is highly concentrated among students who are nearing graduation or have recently graduated (with the classes of 2025, 2024, and 2023 collectively accounting for 84.7%). Having just completed or being about to complete full teacher education programs, this group holds the most recent and in-depth experience with teaching practicum, making their perspectives particularly valuable for evaluating the quality of teacher preparation.

This study employed IBM SPSS 24 and MPLUS 7.4 to conduct statistical analysis on the collected 210 valid responses. First, the reliability of the questionnaire was analyzed and verified. Second, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was applied to assess the structural validity of the scale. Finally, descriptive statistics were computed to examine students’ ratings across different dimensions of UGK collaboration as well as their overall evaluation. Questionnaire reliability refers to the consistency of measurement data and conclusions. The Cronbach’s α coefficients for the four dimensions ranged from 0.880 to 0.956, and split-half reliability ranged from 0.769 to 0.935. Several reliability values exceeded 0.9, which can be attributed to the relatively homogeneous background and response patterns of the sample—composed of TCs [31]. Additionally, all calculated average variance extracted (AVE) values were above 0.5, and composite reliability (CR) values exceeded 0.7, indicating good reliability of the questionnaire. Questionnaire validity refers to the accuracy of the instrument in measuring the intended constructs, including content validity and structural validity. To ensure content validity, the dimensions were revised multiple times based on textual analysis. Furthermore, results of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s test of sphericity were examined. The KMO value was 0.968 (>0.9), and Bartlett’s test yielded χ² = 5099.257 with p < 0.01. Analysis of skewness and kurtosis coefficients for all items showed that skewness values were all below 2 and kurtosis values below 7, suggesting the data were suitable for factor analysis. Using MPLUS 7.4 software, model fit indices and parameter estimates for path coefficients were computed. Factor loadings for the 22 items (

Table 3. Factor Loadings.

Dimension	Item No.	Factor Loading	Dimension	Item No.	Factor Loading
D1	Q1	0.844	D3	Q11	0.865
	Q2	0.844		Q12	0.832
	Q3	0.851		Q13	0.856
D2	Q4	0.719		Q14	0.911
	Q5	0.815		Q15	0.898
	Q6	0.793		Q16	0.882
	Q7	0.793	D4	Q17	0.92
	Q8	0.806		Q18	0.916
	Q9	0.793		Q19	0.896
	Q10	0.89		Q20	0.869
				Q21	0.832
				Q22	0.857

) and model fit indices (

Table 4. Model Fit Indices.

Model	χ2	df	CFI	TLI	AIC	BIC	SRMR	RMSEA
								(90% C.I.)
First-Order Model	462.419	199	0.948	0.94	7543.797	7798.177	0.035	0.079
								(0.070 0.089)
Second-Order Model	461.46	200	0.949	0.941	7540.838	7791.871	0.036	0.079
								(0.069 0.088)

) were obtained. Specifically, all 22 items had factor loadings between 0.50 and 0.95, each significant at the 0.001 level, indicating a well-structured factor model. Results from both the first-order and second-order models demonstrated good and reasonable fit from a statistical perspective. In summary, the combined reliability and validity tests confirm that the survey questionnaire is both reliable and valid [32].

3.3. In-Depth Interviews

This study employed one-on-one in-depth interviews to systematically collect early childhood education majors’ experiences and perceptions of the UGK collaborative education process. The interviews were conducted through a combination of online and offline methods to ensure the richness and accessibility of the data. Interviews were conducted during participants’ free time, with each session lasting 20 to 45 min. The research tool employed a semi-structured interview protocol comprising two main sections: first, basic information about the interviewee (such as age, gender, educational background, etc.); second, their actual experiences and evaluations of UGK collaboration in the teacher preparation of early childhood education majors at universities. The interview primarily utilized open-ended questions, encouraging students to freely express their genuine perspectives based on personal experiences. Examples included: “During kindergarten practicum, did university faculty provide guidance (online or in-person)? Beyond university guidance, what other forms of support were available?” and “During kindergarten practicum, did local education authorities provide assistance such as practicum stipends? Were practicum supervisors dispatched to kindergartens?” Follow-up questions were posed when necessary to delve deeper into the logic and context underlying their perspectives.

The interviewees included 12 students majoring in Early Childhood Education. These students were recruited through online WeChat outreach, with purposive sampling applied to ensure representativeness based on student type, gender, and practicum experience of six months or longer. A final list of 12 students was identified (as detailed in

Table 5. Statistical Summary of Interviewee Demographics.

Number	Gender	Age	Student Types
S1	Male	22	Bachelor’s degree
S2	Female	24	Bachelor’s degree
S3	Male	23	Bachelor’s degree (for associate degree holders)
S4	Male	21	Bachelor’s degree
S5	Female	23	Bachelor’s degree (for associate degree holders)
S6	Female	22	Bachelor’s degree
S7	Female	22	Bachelor’s degree (for associate degree holders)
S8	Female	23	Bachelor’s degree (for associate degree holders)
S9	Female	21	Associate degree
S10	Female	22	Associate degree
S11	Female	21	Associate degree
S12	Female	23	Associate degree

). All participants were over 18 years old, and interviews were conducted with their informed consent, meeting ethical standards for research.

After gathering participants’ consent, the interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. This study employed MAXQDA 2020 qualitative analysis software to systematically code and extract themes from interview transcripts. The data were analyzed using thematic analysis, identifying, categorizing, and interpreting recurring, semantically cohesive content within the texts to distill key elements reflecting UGK’s collaboration. The analytical process comprised four main stages [33,34]: Phase One: Text Preparation and Preliminary Reading. All interview recordings were transcribed into text, verified, and anonymized, ultimately yielding 36,937 characters of text material suitable for analysis. Phase Two: Preliminary Coding and Theme Category Construction. Employing a combined strategy of bottom-up inductive coding and top-down deductive coding, initial categories were established based on the research questions, focusing on the practices of university faculty, students, kindergarten principals, and teachers during the cultivation process, as well as their bilateral collaboration. Open coding was then conducted under each category, gradually forming nine thematic categories: “University” “Kindergarten” “Government” “Students” “University-Kindergarten Collaboration” “University-Government Collaboration” “Kindergarten-Government Collaboration” “University, Kindergarten and Government Collaboration” and “Recommendations” Phase Three: Secondary Coding and Theme Extraction. Returning to the raw data based on the initial coding, we verified coding consistency and coverage. Through continuous comparison, we refined and merged coding items to establish a stable thematic structure, ultimately forming nine thematic categories, 34 subcategories, and 195 valid interview segments (see

Table 6. Coding Framework (Thematic Categories and Subcategories).

Main Categories	Subcategories
Higher education institutions	Life support and psychological counseling; Different university types cultivate different talents; Practicum guidance; Inter-institutional collaboration; Teaching competitions; Teacher preparation and employment; Professional competency development
Kindergartens	Practicum Arrangements; Living Support; Practicum Guidance; Practicum Orientation; Multi-disciplinary Activities
government bodies	Policy support, flagship projects; understanding of early childhood education; training and supervision; livelihood security
Student recognition	Adaptability; Practicum Awareness
Collaboration between universities and government	Lecture training; Job recruitment; Teaching competitions
Collaboration between universities and kindergartens	Employment; Daily Collaboration; Practicum positions
Collaboration between government and kindergartens	Guidance on work; Living support
Collaboration between universities, government, and kindergartens	Practicum Support; Employment Opportunities; Education Department-Led Collaboration Between Universities and Kindergartens
Recommendation	The government should increase its involvement, provide more employment opportunities, exercise oversight, and offer differentiated support. Higher education institutions should provide career guidance, enhance communication across regions, increase practicum opportunities, and emphasize the diversity of kindergarten types. Kindergartens should strengthen management practices. Fixed-class practicum arrangements should be implemented with enhanced oversight. Collaboration between the government and higher education institutions needs to be strengthened. Higher education institutions and kindergartens should strengthen ties and communication, ensuring practicum safeguards.

). Phase Four: Theme Integration. Coded results were integrated into a thematic matrix. Using protocol coding, two authors conducted independent coding, compared results, and discussed discrepancies. Unresolved disagreements were referred to the research team for review until a universally accepted coding system was established.

4. Results

4.1. Questionnaire Data Analysis

4.1.1. Students’ Overall Perception of Collaborative Efforts in Early Childhood Education Talent Cultivation Is at a Relatively High Level, While Their Awareness of Internal Coordination Within Each Respective Entity Remains Comparatively Weak

According to the questionnaire data (see

Table 7. Dimensions and Overall Level of Research on Collaborative Mechanisms for Early Childhood Education Talent Development.

Dimension	Number of Questions	Mean	Standard Deviation
Internal mechanism	3	3.53	0.84
Higher education institutions and kindergartens	7	3.61	0.74
Higher education institutions and government	6	3.61	0.83
Government and kindergartens	6	3.61	0.84
Overall	22	3.59	0.75

for details), students’ overall awareness of the collaborative mechanism for talent cultivation in early childhood education is at a relatively high level (M = 3.59, SD = 0.75). Focusing on the four specific dimensions, the average scores for the university–kindergarten dimension, university–government dimension, and government-kindergarten dimension are the same. The internal collaboration dimension (M = 3.53, SD = 0.84) has the lowest mean score, indicating that students’ awareness of the internal mechanisms of collaborative training is relatively weak.

4.1.2. Students Perceive Internal Collaboration Within Universities and Kindergartens More Directly than Within the Government

Students’ perceptions of internal collaboration among the three main entities-universities, governments, and kindergartens—in the process of early childhood education talent cultivation vary. As shown in

Table 8. Students’ ratings of internal collaboration within universities, government, and kindergartens.

Content	M	SD
Q1	3.67	0.84
Q2	3.38	1.03
Q3	3.54	0.91

, students reported clearer perceptions of internal collaboration within universities (M = 3.67, SD = 0.84) and within kindergartens (M = 3.54, SD = 0.91). In contrast, their perception of internal collaboration within the government was weaker, and the responses exhibited greater variability (M = 3.38, SD = 1.03).

4.1.3. Students Perceive That Universities Emphasize the Cultivation of Practical Kindergarten Skills, While Collaboration in Teaching Innovation Between the Two Needs Strengthening

Students reported that, in their own development process, university–kindergarten collaboration is primarily reflected in the universities’ focus on meeting the practical skill requirements of kindergarten work during student training (M = 3.79, SD = 0.82). However, collaboration between the two in the area of teaching innovation is relatively weaker (M = 3.50, SD = 0.88) (see

Table 9. Students’ ratings of university–kindergarten collaboration.

Content	M	SD
Q4	3.60	0.85
Q5	3.61	0.89
Q6	3.50	0.88
Q7	3.79	0.82
Q8	3.63	0.96
Q9	3.58	0.90
Q10	3.60	0.91

). In addition, students noted that there is also cooperation between universities and kindergartens in curriculum design, teaching resource sharing, joint use of teaching staff, communication, and interdisciplinary collaboration.

4.1.4. Students Perceive Government Supervision of Universities, While Collaboration Between the Two Needs Strengthening in Employment Information Sharing and Professional Influence Enhancement

Students reported that, in their own development process, university–government collaboration is primarily reflected in the government’s supervision and evaluation of the development of university early childhood education programs (M = 3.67, SD = 0.91). However, collaboration between the two needs strengthening in areas such as sharing employment information (M = 3.57, SD = 0.95) and enhancing the social influence of the early childhood education discipline (M = 3.57, SD = 0.97) (see

Table 10. Students’ Ratings of Government-University Collaboration.

Content	M	SD
Q11	3.59	0.93
Q12	3.61	0.92
Q13	3.64	0.90
Q14	3.67	0.91
Q15	3.57	0.97
Q16	3.57	0.95

). Additionally, students noted that there is also collaboration between the two in project cooperation, resource sharing, and policy development for the advancement of early childhood education programs.

4.1.5. Students Perceive the Government as Playing an Important Role in Coordinating Kindergarten Resources, While Collaboration Between the Two Needs Strengthening in Supporting Interns’ Daily Life, Work, and Development

Students reported that, in their own development process, government-kindergarten collaboration is primarily reflected in the government’s important role in coordinating kindergarten resources (M = 3.66, SD = 0.91). However, collaboration between the two needs strengthening in supporting the daily life, work, and development of interns (M = 3.57, SD = 0.90) (see

Table 11. Students’ Ratings of Government-Kindergarten Collaboration.

Content	M	SD
Q17	3.58	0.96
Q18	3.66	0.91
Q19	3.63	0.95
Q20	3.57	0.90
Q21	3.60	0.91
Q22	3.60	0.93

). Additionally, students noted that the two parties also cooperate in ensuring the quality of practical training bases, communication, professional promotion, and employment support.

Overall, based on the questionnaire data, the UGK collaboration perceived by pre-service kindergarten teachers mainly consists of two levels: internal collaboration within universities, the government, and kindergartens, respectively, as well as pairwise collaboration between any two of these three entities. In general, students’ perception of UGK collaboration is at a relatively high level (M = 3.59), but notable differences exist across dimensions. Specifically, students’ perception of internal collaboration within each entity is generally lower (particularly within the government, M = 3.38), reflecting insufficient internal integration within organizations. Students’ perceptions of pairwise collaboration are relatively balanced: university–kindergarten collaboration highlights the cultivation of practical abilities, university–government collaboration focuses on supervision and evaluation, and kindergarten–government collaboration is particularly evident in resource coordination. Moreover, cross-boundary deep collaboration between any two entities requires strengthening, such as in teaching innovation, sharing of employment information, enhancement of professional influence, and comprehensive support for interns throughout their training process.

4.2. Analysis of Key Elements for UGK Collaboration from a Student Perspective

An in-depth analysis of the interview data reveals that students possess profound experiences and insights regarding the collaborative relationships among universities (U), government (G), and kindergartens (K), as well as the bilateral interactions between these entities. The intensity and effectiveness of these bilateral collaborations directly determine the overall efficacy of the collaboration.

4.2.1. Tripartite (UGK) Collaboration: The Dual Core of “Practicum” and “Employment” and the Absence of Top-Level Design

Among students’ limited positive experiences, effective tripartite collaboration is typically tied to concrete matters that directly impact their core interests. First is practicum security: students expect to see a standardized practicum system led by the education department (G) and jointly established by universities (U) and kindergartens (K). This system should ensure the quality of practicum positions, establish clear standards for providing living allowances stipends, and define the responsibilities and rights of all parties—rather than relying solely on sporadic efforts by individual students or universities. Student S1 stated,

“I believe local governments should be more involved—not just providing policy direction, but also strengthening ties with universities and kindergartens while offering financial support to ensure the success of teaching practicum.”

Secondly, regarding employment, student S5 expressed a hope to see the establishment of an employment ecosystem “led by education authorities with collaborative participation from universities and kindergartens,” stating:

“We hope the school will strengthen communication with various regions in the future, encouraging more regions to implement talent recruitment policies to address the employment challenges faced by students who wish to develop their careers in their hometowns.”

Additionally, students S10 and S11 affirmed the collaboration between universities and kindergartens in employment matters. “Various kindergartens come to our school to recruit” “This allows us to find employment without leaving campus” More feedback highlights a prominent issue in UGK collaboration: the absence of a dominant role. Students clearly perceive the individual efforts of universities and kindergartens, yet struggle to recognize the government’s (G) decisive role as a regulator in integrating resources from all three parties and establishing long-term cooperative mechanisms. As reflected in the students’ suggestions, they urgently desire greater government involvement, more employment opportunities, and the fulfillment of supervisory responsibilities. This demand starkly highlights the current shortcomings in top-level design and binding enforcement within the tripartite collaboration. As noted by student S8: “Currently, job opportunities in early childhood education are relatively scarce […] I hope local governments can provide more employment positions.” This widespread sentiment indicates that current collaboration exhibits a “project-based” and “fragmented” characteristic, lacking a top-down long-term mechanism.

4.2.2. University–Kindergarten (U-K) Collaboration: Forging Practical Ties from Practicum Placement to Employment Linkage

The collaboration between universities and kindergartens represents the most direct and fundamental cooperative relationship within the student experience. The effectiveness of this collaboration is first built upon the guarantee of students’ daily life. As highlighted by student S2:

“In terms of daily living, both the local government and the school provide comprehensive support […] The kindergarten director and leadership team pay close attention to our daily needs […] The support system is excellent.”

Additionally, Student S9 explicitly highlighted the direct role of the kindergarten in addressing their daily life issues. “Kindergarten […] provides direct assistance in daily life.” Ideal university–kindergarten (UK) collaboration is manifested not only in the provision of practicum placements by kindergartens but, more importantly, in the deep integration of practical training between both parties. As expressed by student S10, there is a clear desire for more adequate communication and guidance:

“We hope for more communication between the kindergarten and the school. Once we arrive, we can’t just stand there watching them all the time. We need to know what their teaching methods are and what activities they require us to participate in. We really need to communicate and cooperate more.”

Additionally, students place significant emphasis on the connection between the university–kindergarten collaboration and their own career development, viewing “employment” as one of the ultimate outcomes of this partnership. They expect universities and high-quality partner kindergartens to establish stable talent pipelines, enabling practicum to effectively translate into job opportunities. As illustrated by Student S3’s statement, there is a clear emphasis on the quality of practicum platforms:

“Since placement practicum only exposes us to a single kindergarten, the perspective gained from one kindergarten might be rather limited […] If given the opportunity, I would like to intern at a higher-level kindergarten—such as those at the county or municipal level, or university-affiliated kindergartens—to experience a wider variety of kindergarten types or specialized kindergartens. I believe this would be immensely beneficial for me, both theoretically and practically.”

4.2.3. University–Government (U-G) Collaboration: Building an Empowerment Platform for Competency Building and Career Development

The collaboration between universities and government experienced by students primarily manifests as the government acting as a resource provider and coordinator, supporting students through higher education institutions. Specific forms include government-led or government-funded lectures, training sessions, and teaching competitions hosted by universities. These activities are regarded as important avenues for broadening students’ horizons and enhancing their professional skills. Student S2 noted,

“What impressed me most was a teaching skills training event held midway through the practicum, jointly organized by the school and the district […] to enhance our skills.”

Meanwhile, job fairs jointly organized by governments and universities rank among the most popular components of university–government collaboration, serving as an official and authoritative bridge for students transitioning from academia to the workplace. However, students also note that such collaboration are often short-term and project-based, and have yet to evolve into a sustainable, institutionalized support system. Student S4 indicates that “Kindergartens have relatively few recruitment drives; they primarily rely on annual recruitment drives by middle schools to gather talent figures.” Even with job postings being pushed out, the absence of a matching institutional framework may result in employment opportunities failing to align with students’ academic specializations.

4.2.4. Government-Kindergarten (G-K) Collaboration: Establishing a Support Framework for Quality Oversight and Basic Guarantees

From the students’ perspective, collaboration between the government and kindergartens is crucial for ensuring a stable and standardized practicum environment. This collaborative relationship manifests primarily in two aspects: First, the government (particularly the education authorities) provides oversight, professional development, and support to kindergartens. Student S3 explicitly stated that “at the kindergarten where we interned, some local education authorities […] would conduct inspections to review our living conditions and observe teaching quality during class.” Student S12’s statement that “it should have been inspected” indirectly confirms that inspections by education authorities are objectively conducted as part of their routine duties. This provides students with a practical environment that meets basic quality standards. Secondly, the government uses policy levers or project funding to offer financial support (such as practicum stipends) to students interning at kindergartens. This directly alleviates students’ financial burdens, demonstrating the government’s supportive role. Student S5 expressed the positive emotions and support brought by the subsidy:

“The Education Bureau provides us with practicum stipends […] After all, we are interns, and they give us appropriate compensation. Not only do we gain knowledge, but we also receive wages—it truly makes me feel quite happy.”

Students expect the government to strengthen the accreditation and quality assurance of kindergarten practicum sites to ensure they provide better guidance and safeguards for interns. Student S6 remarked,

“The biggest takeaway from this tripartite practicum is that the internal dynamics aren’t well-aligned […] Kindergartens treat you as labor to be utilized. I feel there could be better alignment […] This is an area I believe needs improvement in the practicum.”

This indirectly reflects the expectation that the government should effectively oversee practicum, clarifying the status and rights of interns.

4.2.5. Key Collaborative Elements from the Student Perspective

Synthesizing the above analysis, from the student perspective, the key elements of the current UGK collaborative model are characterized by a backbone of bilateral practical cooperation driven by specific interests, yet lack top-down systematic integration. Specifically, university–kindergarten collaboration serves as the most direct practical link, manifested throughout the entire process from livelihood support and practicum guidance to employment coordination, though its depth and systematic nature still require strengthening. University–government collaboration primarily plays a role in resource and platform provision, offering support to students through project-based training, competitions, and recruitment activities, yet it has not evolved into an institutionalized mechanism. Government-kindergarten collaboration forms a foundational framework for quality assurance and support, particularly functioning in quality supervision and practicum subsidies, but its process management and synergy remain insufficient. Most importantly, while students recognize the efforts of tripartite collaboration, they widely perceive a significant absence of the government’s role as a “system integrator”. This results in the three-party collaboration exhibiting “project-based” and “fragmented” features, failing to form a stable, long-term, top-level collaborative ecosystem. Therefore, strengthening the government’s leadership function, deepening the symbiotic relationship among all parties, and embedding students’ core concerns into the collaborative process are key elements for enhancing the effectiveness of UGK collaboration.

4.3. Analysis of Student-Perceived UGK Collaborative Outcomes Based on the ESD Core Competencies Framework

Using the eight core competencies of Education for ESD as an analytical framework, the interpretation of survey and interview data reveals that the current UGK collaborative mechanism shows a pattern of supporting foundational and operational competencies, while providing limited attention to capacities requiring foresight, systemic thinking, and deep engagement.

4.3.1. Support for Systems Thinking Competency: Shows Foundational Awareness of Connections, with Understanding of Systemic Complexity Needing Deepening

Data indicates that students have developed a basic awareness of the fundamental connections within the UGK system, such as expressing in interviews the “expectation for government-led construction of an practicum system”. However, their perception of the complex internal mechanisms within the system remains weak. The score for the “internal mechanisms” dimension in the questionnaire was relatively low (M = 3.53, SD = 0.84), particularly for the item on “cross-departmental collaboration within government” (M = 3.38, SD = 1.03). In interviews, students struggled to clearly articulate the government’s specific role in systemic integration. This reflects that current collaborative practices offer limited promotion for students to understand the deeper operational mechanisms of the system.

4.3.2. Support for Anticipatory Competency: Guidance for Foresight Is Significantly Insufficient

The data shows almost no evidence of the collaborative mechanism effectively guiding students in anticipatory thinking. Students’ focus was highly concentrated on immediate practicum and employment concerns (e.g., the mean score for policy adjustment items was 3.64, SD = 0.90), failing to demonstrate active consideration of future educational trends, societal transformations, or sustainability challenges. This suggests that the current content and design of UGK collaboration primarily serve established procedures and immediate needs, lacking a clear orientation towards integrating long-term perspectives and cultivating future-oriented competencies.

4.3.3. Support for Normative Competency: Touches on Foundational Concepts of Fairness, Lacks Deep Value Discussion

Students expressed concern about the fairness of resource allocation, such as desiring “a unified practicum subsidy standard”. However, interview materials contained no discussion initiated by students on core ESD values like educational equity, inclusive development, or environmental responsibility. Their evaluation of the collaborative mechanism was largely based on practical standards for personal development, rather than broader social and sustainability value concepts. This indicates that the collaborative process has a limited role in stimulating deep value reflection and construction.

4.3.4. Support for Strategic Competency: Problem Identification Is Encouraged, Participation in Co-Design of Strategies Is Low

Students were able to identify problems within the collaboration and propose improvements (e.g., “establishing stable talent pipeline channels”), but this often manifested as appeals to external mechanisms. The questionnaire score for the “teaching innovation cooperation” dimension was not high (M = 3.50, SD = 0.88), and interviews revealed that students primarily positioned themselves as recipients of collaborative outcomes, not as participants in the planning process. This explains their relative lack of experience and preparation in actively designing and promoting solutions for sustainable development.

4.3.5. Support for Collaboration Competency: Operational-Level Collaboration Is Affirmed, Deeper Cooperative Networks Are Still Being Built

Collaboration was a relatively positive aspect perceived in the current model. Students gave recognition to communication channels (M = 3.60, SD = 0.91) and joint teaching activities (M = 3.63, SD = 0.96). However, this collaboration was often described as “project-driven”. Performance was average in areas like “resource sharing” (M = 3.59, SD = 0.93) and “interdisciplinary cooperation” (M = 3.58, SD = 0.90), indicating that collaboration is mostly concentrated on specific tasks, with room for development in building broad, deep, and normalized partnership networks.

4.3.6. Support for Critical Thinking Competency: Sparks Criticism of Specific Phenomena, Lacks Guidance for Systemic Reflection

Students showed clear critical awareness of the current state of collaboration, such as directly pointing out the “lack of a government leading role” and giving lower ratings to issues like “employment information barriers” (M = 3.57, SD = 0.95). However, most of this criticism was directed at specific operational obstacles and did not extend to deeper scrutiny of structural contradictions within the education system or the limitations of the current talent cultivation model regarding sustainability. This suggests the collaborative mechanism has not sufficiently guided students to apply critical thinking to more fundamental ESD issues.

4.3.7. Support for Self-Awareness Competency: Little Evidence of Reflective Practice Regarding Learner Agency

Across all data, no clear evidence was found of students systematically reflecting on their own roles, responsibilities, and learning processes within Education for Sustainable Development. The focus of students’ discourse remained on evaluating external mechanisms, with their identity confined to that of observers and beneficiaries. This gap exists between their current stance and the ESD emphasis on achieving agentic growth and internalization of responsibility through reflection.

4.3.8. Support for Integrated Problem-Solving Competency: Provides Some Practical Contexts, Offers Limited Opportunities for Integrated Engagement

The UGK collaboration provided students with contexts to experience multi-stakeholder problem-solving in areas like practicum and employment. However, the medium-level scores across questionnaire dimensions, combined with the prevalent state of students passively accepting solutions revealed in interviews, jointly indicate that students still have scarce opportunities to personally engage in systematic practices that integrate knowledge from different disciplines and perspectives of various stakeholders to address complex sustainability problems.

Overall, analyzing student-perceived UGK collaborative outcomes through the lens of ESD principles reveals a characteristic of coexisting foundational alignment and high-level deviation. The foundational alignment is mainly reflected in the practical and cooperative aspects advocated by ESD: students affirmed the role of collaboration in promoting communication and joint teaching (collaboration competency), demonstrated basic awareness of systemic connections (systems thinking), and showed concern for operational fairness (normative competency). This aligns with the ESD principles of connecting with reality and fostering cooperation. The deviation is concentrated in the areas of depth, systemic nature, and agency required by ESD: the collaborative mechanism failed to guide students in developing anticipatory and strategic competencies, lacking a long-term perspective and proactive planning; students’ criticism of problems and understanding of the system mostly remained superficial, not touching on structural issues or core sustainability values; most notably, the absence of student self-reflection and their passive role show a significant gap with the ESD principles emphasizing active participation and internalization of responsibility.

5. Discussion

This study evaluates the university–government-kindergarten collaborative mechanism for cultivating early childhood education professionals from a student perspective. Findings reveal structural imbalances within the UGK collaboration framework, along with its potential and limitations in fostering sustainable development competencies.

5.1. Structural Understanding of the UGK Coordination Mechanism: Confirmation and Deepening of Bilateral Stability and Tripartite Fragility

From the perspective of student experiences, the UGK collaboration exhibits a structural characteristic where “stable bilateral relationships” coexist with “fragile tripartite integration”. This finding closely aligns with collaborative governance theory and related empirical research. This finding aligns closely with collaborative governance theory and prior empirical research. On one hand, the effectiveness of U-K and U-G collaboration validates the perspectives of resource dependency theory. Universities actively develop strong bilateral ties with kindergartens and governments to secure practical venues and policy resources, aligning with Liu’s (2022) conclusion that “universities tend to prioritize maintaining resource input and output channels in collaborative settings [35].” This resource-exchange-based collaboration forms the dual pillars of “practice and policy” that sustain the stable operation of the cooperative system.

On the other hand, students’ feedback on the weakness of internal mechanisms, particularly the inefficiency of cross-departmental collaboration within the government, profoundly reveals the critical barrier of “systemic failure” in collaborative governance. This not only confirms the phenomenon of “cooperative inertia” in collaborative governance theory-where parties possess the willingness to cooperate but are constrained by systemic barriers-but also further pinpoints the causes of this phenomenon to hierarchical and departmental barriers within the government itself. In the Chinese context, the underlying cause of this structural characteristic lies in the systematic misalignment in the role positioning and linkage mechanisms among the stakeholders [36]. As the institutional “leading force” and “rule-maker”, the government in practice often sees its role diminished from that of a macro-level “system integrator” to a “transactional administrator”, failing to fully fulfill its critical functions of integration and guidance. The role of universities as “theoretical innovators and professional leaders” is frequently confined to the academic sphere, lacking deep embedding and effective translation into practical solutions within real-world settings. Kindergartens, as the “main bodies of childcare and educational practice” often assume the passive role of “practice bases” with their valuable feedback failing to effectively inform policy revisions and training program adjustments. This misalignment of roles and the absence of effective linkage mechanisms hinder the full realization of the government’s leading responsibilities emphasized in the Preschool Education Law of the People’s Republic of China, while also preventing the professional roles of universities and kindergartens from achieving deep integration within an effective tripartite framework. Compared to approaches that primarily explore collaborative dilemmas from the macro-institutional level [37], this research provides empirical evidence for “collaborative inertia” from the micro-level perspective of student perceptions within the field of early childhood education.

5.2. Key Enabling Factors and Systemic Barriers in UGK Collaborative Models: Re-Examining the Role of Government

Analysis of the facilitating factors and systemic barriers compels us to re-examine the role of the government within the strategic framework of early childhood education development in China. Documents such as China’s Education Modernization 2035 [38] and a series of policy papers [39,40] clearly establish “universal access, affordability, safety, and quality” as the core objectives for early childhood education development, identifying “innovative collaborative education models” as a key pathway to achieve them. Within this context, the government’s leading role is endowed with specific connotations: it should act not only as a resource provider but also as a strategic planner, standard-setter, and quality supervisor. However, the “role absence” perceived by students in this study precisely points to a “transmission failure” in the process of translating macro-level government strategies into micro-level collaborative mechanisms. The government has not successfully converted top-level designs into a clear system of rules, incentives, and evaluations that could stimulate deep collaboration between universities and kindergartens. Consequently, the efforts of all three parties fail to converge effectively on the shared goal of cultivating outstanding kindergarten teachers who “are dedicated to early childhood education, possess high professional ethics, and have solid childcare and educational competencies along with scientific literacy” This makes the collaboration prone to short-term, project-based pitfalls in practice.

The findings of this study provide an important supplement to existing research. While many studies (Qvist, 2017 [41]; Yao, 2023 [42]) emphasize the “meta-governance” role of the government in collaboration, students in this research clearly perceived a significant gap in the government’s performance as a “system integrator” and “long-term planner”. This absence has rendered the collaboration episodic and disjointed, standing in stark contrast to the systemic need for the government to fulfill its expected roles as the strategic architect and primary quality assurance agent within the training ecosystem. The deficit in strategic planning directly undermines the realization of core principles-such as child-centered pedagogy and lifelong learning articulated in the Professional Standards for Kindergarten Teachers-thereby compromising the collaboration’s long-term efficacy in cultivating exemplary teachers. Furthermore, the insufficient depth of collaboration in strategic areas such as “teaching innovation” indicates that the current UGK collaboration has not yet advanced beyond the stage of “operational-level cooperation” and remains distant from achieving “strategic-level synergy”, which is centered on the co-creation of value.

5.3. Toward Sustainable Teacher Education: Revealing the Competency Development Gap Between UGK Collaboration and ESD Principles

The most significant contribution of this study lies in its first-time adoption of the student perspective and the application of the eight core ESD competency framework to systematically interpret and analyze the outcomes of UGK collaboration. This approach reveals a structural imbalance in competency cultivation within the collaborative process. This finding challenges the simplistic view that equates collaborative mechanisms with comprehensive competency development and offers an important point for reflection.

The research indicates that the UGK collaborative mechanism provides an initial supportive context for students to develop foundational ESD literacies such as systems thinking and collaborative skills. This observation resonates with Kumpulainen’s (2016) concept of the “collaborative situation as a learning arena” [43], explaining the positive role of collaboration in laying the groundwork for certain sustainability competencies. However, when examined through the lens of ESD’s deeper core competencies, the current collaborative model shows significant limitations in its orientation toward competency cultivation. Phenomena such as students’ weak anticipatory awareness, their critical reflections remaining largely at the operational level, and their insufficient recognition of their own role as agents of change collectively point to a profound underlying issue: the existing logic of the UGK collaborative model remains heavily dominated by instrumental rationality.

This interpretation further deepens existing critiques of the overly technical focus in teacher education, which often occurs at the expense of broader professional judgment [44,45]. This study demonstrates that even within an ostensibly advanced collaborative training model, if its core design logic still primarily focuses on efficiently producing production of teachers who are immediately functional in the classroom, its scope for competency cultivation will naturally be limited. Such a model struggles to adequately meet the need, as discussed by Stanislav Avsec & Vesna Ferk Savec (2021), for cultivating “transformative sustainability actors” [46]. On the contrary, by reinforcing short-term practicality, it may inadvertently constrain the development of critical thinking and strategic foresight necessary for students to address long-term complex challenges. Therefore, this study argues that the future development of UGK collaboration should not be content with merely optimizing structures and processes. It is essential to engage in profound reflection and fundamental reconstruction of its underlying educational philosophy and value objectives, guided by the comprehensive competency framework advocated by ESD.

6. Conclusions, Limitations, and Implications

6.1. Conclusions

A key premise of this study is to place TCs at the center of the evaluation. By integrating questionnaire and interview data, it provides a systematic assessment of the UGK collaborative education model in Chinese higher education institutions’ early childhood education programs from the long-overlooked perspective of students. Key findings are as follows: First, students’ overall perception of UGK collaboration was moderately positive, yet significant imbalances existed within its internal structure. Bilateral collaboration between universities and kindergartens, as well as universities and government bodies, received high recognition. Conversely, top-level design involving tripartite integration and cross-departmental coordination within government bodies were perceived as the weakest links, revealing “structural fragility” within the collaborative system. Second, key drivers of collaborative effectiveness center on practical bilateral partnerships directly linked to students’ interests, such as competency development and employment linkage in U-K collaboration, and resource support and quality oversight in U-G/G-K collaboration. Fundamental systemic barriers stem from the absence of government as a “system integrator”, resulting in fragmented, project-driven collaboration lacking strategic depth and sustainability. Third, and this constitutes the study’s most revealing finding, is that when the Education for ESD competency framework is applied to interpret the collaborative outcomes, it becomes evident that the collaborative mechanism provides support primarily for foundational competencies such as systems thinking and collaboration. In contrast, it shows a systemic deficiency in cultivating core sustainability literacies, including futures thinking, critical reflection, normative competency, strategic action, and self-awareness.

6.2. Limitations

This study has the following limitations: First, regarding the sample, although both questionnaires and interviews were employed, the breadth and representativeness of the sample sources could be improved. The questionnaire sample was predominantly concentrated in specific universities and was overrepresented by graduating classes, while the recruitment of interview participants was also constrained by limited channels. This may have impacted the generalizability of the research conclusions. Future research should allocate more resources to cover diverse geographic regions, institutions of varying tiers, and include more lower-year students to gather a more representative sample. Second, while the mixed-methods design provided some depth, the exploration of students’ deeper experiences could be strengthened. For instance, the study did not employ longitudinal design to examine the impact of collaborative experiences on students’ long-term career development. Future studies could incorporate longitudinal tracking or participant observation to more dynamically reveal the complexity of collaborative processes. Finally, from a theoretical perspective, while using the ESD framework as a post hoc explanatory tool helps avoid presupposition bias, it may also limit its inspirational value during the research design phase. How to more organically integrate sustainability concepts throughout the entire process—from research design to data collection—presents a direction for future exploration.

6.3. Implications

The findings of this study provide important theoretical and practical implications for the sustainable development of China’s early childhood teacher training system.

At the practical level, it is recommended that all collaborative entities take targeted actions: First, strengthen the government’s leading and integrating functions to provide stable institutional expectations and resource guarantees for collaboration. Second, deepen symbiotic cooperation between universities and kindergartens. Both parties should move beyond superficial practicum arrangements toward a deep symbiotic relationship characterized by “joint curriculum development, mutual faculty appointments, and shared outcomes” jointly designing curricula and evaluation systems that deeply integrate theory and practice. Third, explicitly integrate ESD competency development objectives throughout the entire collaborative process. Sustainable development capability indicators—such as systems thinking and critical reflection—should be explicitly incorporated into talent development plans, practicum objectives, and activity designs. This will guide students in transitioning from passive skill recipients to active agents of change.

At the policy level, the following recommendations are proposed: First, refine the top-level institutional design for collaborative education. National and provincial education authorities should introduce dedicated policies clarifying the legal status, responsibilities, and investment mechanisms of universities, governments, and employers in collaborative education. Additionally, the effectiveness of collaboration and ESD outcomes should be incorporated into educational evaluation systems. Second, establish a continuous improvement mechanism grounded in student experience. Education administrators should promote regular student satisfaction and competency development tracking surveys, using the “student perspective” as a key basis for evaluating and optimizing collaborative policies. This ensures policy adjustments consistently serve students’ holistic and sustainable development.