The Influence of Female Farmers in Digital Urban Agriculture in Khartoum State: Examining Gender Challenges and Opportunities

Abstract

Digital tools and platforms offer significant potential to address critical gaps in market access, credit availability, and agricultural knowledge, particularly in urban and peri-urban areas. This is especially relevant in regions like Sudan, where these opportunities remain largely underexplored. By providing real-time market information, facilitating financial access, and offering essential agricultural training, these tools can help bridge traditional barriers, improve decision-making capabilities, and contribute to sustainable agriculture. Such advancements strengthen economic resilience and promote equity in agriculture, enabling these farmers to drive innovation and sustainability in the industry. Our study was conducted in Omdurman’s Algamwai area during 2022 and 2023, and involved interviews with 100 female farmers. It explored the intersection of gender, technology, and socioeconomic equity. It highlighted how technological advancements can enhance agricultural productivity and market access while addressing challenges such as limited digital literacy and socioeconomic constraints. Despite structural inequalities—including restricted land ownership (45%), limited credit access (5%), and inadequate extension services—female farmers are driving innovation and sustainability by adopting sustainable practices, enhancing food security, and building community resilience. Digital urban agriculture provides income opportunities (76% rely on it) and serves as a platform for equitable participation. From a social science perspective, this research underscores the need to address systemic disparities to unlock the full potential of farmers. Policies ensuring equitable access to resources, credit, and technology are essential for fostering participation and maximizing the socio-economic benefits of digital agriculture in Sudan and similar contexts.

1. Introduction

Digital agriculture integrates digital technologies into agricultural practices to enhance productivity, efficiency, and sustainability [1,2,3,4]. Core components include big data analytics, the Internet of Things (IoT), and precision agriculture techniques [5,6,7], which improve decision-making and resource management. Scholars also emphasize the transformative role of automation and robotics in modernizing traditional farming [8,9], as well as the potential of digital platforms to enhance supply chain efficiency and connect farmers with markets [10,11]. Together, these innovations address global food security challenges.

Technologies such as remote sensing systems, sensors, and drones equipped with advanced imaging capabilities enable precision agriculture by monitoring soil moisture and identifying pest infestations or nutrient deficiencies [12,13]. In urban settings with limited space, these tools support methods like vertical farming, hydroponics, and aquaponics, optimizing resource use and facilitating data-driven decisions. Rabiya et al. [14] highlight that digital tools enhance productivity and sustainability, while Pathmudi et al. [15] emphasize IoT’s role in transforming agriculture through sensors, communication networks, and data analytics. Yuan et al. [16] note that urban agriculture, supported by IoT, AI, and vertical farming, addresses food security, resource efficiency, and environmental sustainability.

Development literature underscores the benefits of digital urban agriculture, including sustainability, scientific innovation, and social inclusion, as highlighted by the FAO (2008) [17], UN-HABITAT (2010) [18], and Olawepo et al. [19]. Gender inclusion is essential for poverty alleviation and sustainable development [20,21,22]. Within the social components, there exist three distinct realms in which the first realm highlights the major roles played by men, while the second realm emphasizes the major roles played by women. In a third realm, constructive interaction between the sexes suggests the possibility of collaboration and mutual understanding. The third concept represents the most promising approach for fostering global consensus on addressing gender (in)equality. This approach not only acknowledges the distinct contributions of men and women but also highlights the transformative potential of collaboration in building a more equitable and inclusive society. By focusing on mutual respect, shared goals, and cooperative efforts, one can pave the way for meaningful progress and sustainable solutions to gender disparities worldwide. The conceptual differences in the roles of men and women often stem from societal norms and expectations. While men have traditionally been associated with roles that emphasize economic productivity and innovation, women’s contributions have often been undervalued or confined to supportive or domestic spheres. Empowering women, particularly in sectors like agriculture, challenges these norms by highlighting their capacity to drive innovation, promote sustainability, and strengthen economic resilience. This not only bridges gender disparities but also fosters a more equitable and inclusive environment where both genders can equally contribute to progress and development. With the latter in mind, digital urban agriculture provides income-generating opportunities for marginalized groups, particularly women, while addressing systemic gender inequalities in education, employment, and political representation [23,24]. Cultural and societal norms, including patriarchal structures, exacerbate these disparities. Tackling these issues requires legal reforms, education, and cultural shifts to promote equality. The latter aspect involves addressing the basic roles and responsibilities assigned by society while ensuring equal opportunities and outcomes for all. In order to accomplish this, it is necessary to challenge stereotypes, promote shared responsibilities in the caregiving and domestic work sectors. In addition, it involves creating systems that provide equal access to resources, education, and employment. In order to achieve true equality, equity considerations must address historical and systemic disadvantages. In this way, policies and practices are designed to promote fairness while also removing barriers that perpetuate marginalization and exclusion.

Urban agriculture serves as an effective approach to addressing poverty, ensuring food security, and fostering community cohesion, as highlighted by scholars such as Smit et al. [25,26,27] and Mougeot [27]. Digital technologies support methods like precision farming, vertical gardening, and hydroponics, enhancing productivity, sustainability, and opportunities for economic advancement [28,29,30]. The World Bank (2019) [29] emphasize the importance of enabling female farmers to access resources and markets through digital technologies. In Khartoum State, Sudan, female farmers have been instrumental in advancing digital urban agriculture, improving social and environmental welfare while integrating scientific innovations with sustainability principles [30].

Digitalization enhances the efficiency and sustainability of urban agriculture, empowering marginalized groups, particularly women, through income-generating opportunities. Understanding digital urban agriculture and urban farming is essential to maximizing these benefits. Media and cultural shifts, as noted by Wahyono et al. [31], influence information-seeking and consumption patterns. Female farmers contribute significantly to agriculture by adopting technology to improve practices, as highlighted by the FAO (2011) [32]. Access to technology and resources is crucial for sustainable agricultural development and food security [33]. Urban farming, recommended for city planning and policy, supports livelihood strategies for the urban poor, contributes to local economies, and integrates ecological systems [34,35]. Small towns play a vital role in connecting rural agriculture to urban markets, shaping spatial patterns essential for agriculture and urban planning [35]. Urban agriculture (UA) serves multiple purposes, addressing economic, cultural, health, and educational needs across non-commercial, retail, and animal-focused practices. Vaage et al. [36] highlight that UA is shaped by economic, social, and environmental factors, with municipal regulations significantly influencing its development. While UA can enhance food security, economic growth, and sustainability, challenges such as limited land access, insufficient policy support, and resource constraints hinder its full potential, as noted by Dona.C.G.W. et al. [37].

Gender dynamics are central to UA, with women often facing greater obstacles in securing resources and support compared to men, as observed by Robert R. Simiyu et al. [38]. Historical marginalization has excluded women from agricultural inputs and services, limiting their roles primarily to subsistence farming, as detailed by Mencher and Saradamony [39].

Digitalization offers transformative potential for UA in addressing urbanization, climate change, and food security challenges. Abdul-Latif et al. [40] emphasize the role of technologies like artificial intelligence, IoT, and big data in improving urban planning, agricultural productivity, and climate resilience. Similarly, M. Korth et al. [41] highlight how UA can enhance food security in low- and middle-income countries by increasing food availability, accessibility, and utilization. However, the success of UA initiatives depends on overcoming barriers such as land tenure insecurity, inadequate infrastructure, and limited policy support through integrated planning and investment.

Women in Khartoum State engage in UA across various scales, from small-scale subsistence farming to large-scale commercial operations, contributing to both crop and livestock production. In the context of Sudan, where traditional gender roles often define responsibilities in urban and agricultural activities, the lack of data on the role of UA in promoting gender equality hinders the ability to assess its impact. Understanding how UA intersects with the main roles of women and men in Sudan could provide insights into its potential to challenge gender norms and enhance equitable participation in economic and social spheres. Crops such as vegetables, fruit trees, and medicinal plants are cultivated, alongside intensive dairy, meat, and poultry production using controlled environments and specialized inputs [42]. Khartoum’s strategic location at the confluence of the Blue and White Niles supports UA, yet challenges like resource access and infrastructure deficits persist, as noted by Farida Mahgoub [43].

Addressing these challenges is critical for enhancing UA’s sustainability and productivity. El-Siddig et al. [44] emphasize the need for sustainable water practices and improved infrastructure to support UA growth. patriarchy

Previous research underscores the importance of addressing gender disparities in UA [45,46]. The FAO’s 2011 report, Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gender Gap for Development, highlights women’s critical role in agriculture and the systemic barriers they face [47]. Similarly, Campi et al. [48] discuss the transformative potential of digital tools in overcoming resource and market access challenges for women farmers. Daoud et al.’s study [49] further supports these findings, identifying cultural and resource-related barriers faced by women in Khartoum’s UA sector.

Recommendations from the UN-Habitat report [50]; Gender and Urban Agriculture: Addressing Challenges and Exploring Opportunities align with the current research, emphasizing the importance of inclusive policy measures to enhance gender equality in urban agriculture. Urban agriculture inclusive policy measures address barriers to equitable participation, such as access to resources, training, and land ownership. These policies can promote women’s involvement, fostering economic empowerment and social inclusion. By ensuring equal opportunities, urban agriculture can contribute to sustainable development and community resilience.

1.1. Integrated Theoretical Framework

The purpose of this study is to analyze the challenges faced by female farmers in urban and peri-urban contexts, with a particular focus on Sudan, using an interdisciplinary framework that combines Gender and Development Theory and Sustainable Livelihoods. To address the multidimensional barriers and opportunities within these systems, insights from urban planning, gender studies, digital agriculture, and urban agriculture are incorporated into the framework.

• Gender and Development Theory

  ○

  This paper examines the role of gender in shaping access to resources, opportunities, and decision-making in agriculture, with a specific focus on Sudan.

  ○

  Our study highlights structural inequalities that prevent women in Sudan from participating in urban agriculture and benefiting from digital agricultural innovations.

• Sustainable Livelihoods Framework

  ○

  This study examines the assets (human, social, physical, financial, and natural) available to female farmers in Sudan and how they impact their resilience and productivity.

  ○

  This paper explores how urban planning and digital tools in Sudan can enhance livelihood sustainability by addressing systemic barriers such as limited access to credit, land, and extension services.

• Urban Planning and Digital Agriculture

  ○

  The paper incorporates urban planning principles into the spatial dynamics of urban agriculture, emphasizing the need for gender-responsive zoning and land-use regulations.

  ○

  Digital tools and platforms play a crucial role in addressing barriers to market access, credit, and agricultural knowledge for women in urban and peri-urban areas like Sudan. Online marketplaces enable women to sell their agricultural produce directly to consumers, bypassing intermediaries and ensuring fair pricing. Credit access is facilitated through microfinance and crowdfunding platforms, connecting women to financial resources tailored to their needs, reducing dependence on traditional banking systems. Additionally, mobile apps and online training programs provide real-time information on farming techniques, weather forecasts, and pest control, empowering women with practical knowledge to enhance productivity. These tools help overcome challenges such as limited mobility, inadequate infrastructure, and social constraints, while fostering economic empowerment and sustainable agricultural practices. In addition, digital platforms facilitate access to financial services and training resources. As a result of these advancements, communities are empowered, productivity is improved, and long-term sustainability is promoted.

• Urban Agriculture

  ○

  The study examines the role of urban farming in enhancing food security, income generation, and community resilience.

  ○

  The study analyzes the unique challenges and opportunities faced by female farmers in urban contexts, including land scarcity and sociocultural constraints.

The study integrates these frameworks to provide a comprehensive understanding and address of the challenges faced by female farmers, and offers policy and practice implications. This framework ensures a close alignment between the theoretical underpinnings and the key concepts introduced in the introduction, including urban planning, gender, digital agriculture, and urban agriculture.

1.2. Research Question

This research is an examination of the challenges female farmers face in Khartoum State in relation to social, gender, technical, and technological factors, and how these factors exacerbate their difficulties in achieving sustainable productivity and improving their livelihood. It examines how these factors interact to influence female farmers’ access to resources, adoption of innovative practices, and overcoming systemic barriers. This analysis highlights how addressing these challenges can enhance productivity, promote gender equity, and contribute to sustainable agricultural development in the region.

1.3. Objectives

Our objective was to identify and categorize the challenges faced by female farmers in Khartoum State, focusing on access to credit, production constraints, land limitations, and barriers to adopting new crops.

• We analyzed patterns within each challenge category to determine the underlying factors contributing to these issues.
• We proposed targeted interventions and policy recommendations based on the identified patterns to enhance the resilience and productivity of female farmers. Recognizing the inherent differences between men and women as purposeful and complementary highlights their essential role in maintaining balance and harmony in human societies. Rather than being deficiencies, these distinctions are essential elements of a larger design, in which each gender fulfills specific roles aligned with their unique characteristics. By understanding these natural differences, we can appreciate each gender’s individual strengths and contributions, which are crucial for maintaining a societal balance. As a result of this perspective, gender dynamics in participation and collaboration are also shaped.

Recalling the complex social construct, patriarchy and feminism have evolved over time, often influenced by cultural, historical, and biological factors. Objectively, patriarchy refers to a system in which men hold primary power in terms of political leadership, moral authority, and property ownership. Feminism advocates for gender equality and challenges the systemic inequalities caused by patriarchal structures. The analysis of power dynamics between patriarchy and feminism often intersects, with feminism seeking to dismantle the structures that perpetuate inequality. While patriarchy has historically reinforced male dominance, feminism stresses the importance of equitable representation and equal opportunities for all genders. From a biological standpoint, men and women possess inherent differences which influence their roles and life missions, but these differences should not be used as a basis for discrimination. Rather, they can be viewed as complementary characteristics that contribute to a society that is both balanced and diverse. When we recognize and value these differences, we can create a world in which both men and women have equal opportunities to thrive and contribute. It has been historically accepted that men’s physical strength placed them at the forefront of tasks requiring endurance and protection, while women’s reproductive capacity placed them at the forefront of nurturing and family-building. It is important to note that these natural tendencies do not inherently justify unequal power dynamics in society.

Women’s rights advocates emphasize that equality does not negate the recognition of differences, but rather ensures that they are not used as a basis for discrimination or subjugation in order to perpetuate systemic oppression. Feminism addresses the imbalance created when these natural roles are used as a means of perpetuating systemic oppression. In order to reach a more equitable and harmonious future, society must embrace the unique strengths of both genders and foster mutual respect.

The goal of a balanced discussion is to acknowledge the contributions and potential of both genders while striving for a society in which individual capabilities are more important than gender in determining opportunities and outcomes. It promotes collaboration and inclusivity by valuing the inherent value of each individual. By removing stereotypes and embracing diversity, we create an environment where talents flourish, innovation thrives, and communities prosper. As a result, equality is not about eliminating differences but rather celebrating them and utilizing them for the benefit of the entire community.

2. Materials and Methods

This study assesses the contributions female farmers and their families make to digital urban agriculture. The concept of digital urban agriculture is an emerging one, with limited recognition and implementation. As a result, there may be insufficient data, since respondents may be unfamiliar with either the term or its application; therefore, our survey is limited to looking at the prevalence and potential impact of the term. For a full analysis of female farmers’ influence on digital urban agriculture in Khartoum State, it is imperative to adopt a diverse and inclusive data collection methodology. As a result of these approaches, women are expected to be able to address a number of challenges and opportunities in this sector. In this study, gender and intersectionality are examined using a gender analysis framework in order to gain a collective understanding of shared challenges and strategies through focus group discussions. By incorporating these expanded methods, this research will provide a more nuanced understanding of the roles, challenges, and opportunities faced by female farmers in Khartoum State. Data on female roles in urban agriculture are collected through both qualitative and quantitative methods.

2.1. Qualitative Methods

Qualitative data analysis was conducted using thematic analysis, gathered through interviews, focus groups, and observations, helps to understand the experiences, challenges, and perspectives of female farmers. The interviews were conducted by trained researchers with expertise in gender and agricultural studies, ensuring a nuanced understanding of the participants’ experiences. Verbal ethical approvals have been obtained following the regular policies from the Ministry of Agriculture in Sudan [51]. Data collection costs were funded by Ahfad University for Women in Omdurman, Khartoum State, which supports research on women’s role in sustainable agriculture, focusing on practices that promote environmental and economic resilience. Each interview lasted approximately 45 to 60 min, allowing sufficient time to explore participants’ experiences and perspectives in depth. Participant checks were incorporated to validate the findings, where key participants reviewed the preliminary results to ensure accuracy and relevance to their experiences.

2.2. Quantitative Methods

Quantitative data, obtained through surveys, frequency distribution, and statistical analysis, provide measurable insights into farm size, production levels, income, and available resources. Combining these approaches allows for a comprehensive understanding of female farmers’ contributions and needs in digital urban agriculture. To identify urban female farmers, multistage sampling was used due to their complex distribution. The sample consisted of 100 urban female farmers from the Algamwai area of Omdurman between 2022 and 2023, categorized into the following marital statuses: single: 30, separated: 10, married: 40, divorced: 15, widowed: 5. While authors acknowledge the concern regarding the size of the sample and a lack of representation of female farmers in this study, time constraints and limited resources, as well as other social restrictions, limited the number of samples to 100. In spite of this, we believe that larger, more diverse samples will enhance the generalizability of our findings. A systematic random sampling approach was employed to select 100 respondents. The target population was first defined to ensure its alignment with the study’s objectives and representativeness. This method ensured an even distribution of the sample across the population, minimized selection bias, and provided a reliable representation of the target group. The systematic random sampling technique facilitated efficient data collection while upholding the study’s objectives. These individuals were recruited through local agricultural cooperatives, community organizations, and digital platforms utilized by female farmers in Khartoum State. Recruitment efforts employed a combination of purposive and snowball sampling to ensure diversity in age, socioeconomic status, and farming experience, thereby capturing a broad range of perspectives. The purposive sample was developed in collaboration with local agricultural cooperatives and community organizations to ensure representation across these dimensions. Snowball sampling, involving initial participants referring others within their networks, further expanded the sample diversity. This approach identified typical farming practices by leveraging existing social connections, particularly in the Algamwai area of Omdurman. Tools such as referral lists, social networks, and community connections facilitated participant recruitment. The community’s involvement in the research design, through partnerships with local organizations, ensured the study addressed the priorities and concerns of female farmers in Khartoum State.

2.3. Socioeconomic Characteristics

A table (

Table 1. Frequency distribution of respondents according to socioeconomic characteristics (n = 100).

Socio-Demographic Characteristics	Frequency (n = 100)	%
Age
<35	30	30
36–45	34	34
46–55	14	14
50+	22	22
Total	100	100
minimum age = 15, maximum = 56, mean age = 45, SD = 7
Marital status
Single/separated	14	14
Married	63	63
Divorced	6	6
Widowed	17	17
Total	100	100
Number of household members (family size)
>5	82	82
<15	12	12
<20	6	6
20+	0	0
Total	100	100
Minimum number = 6, larger = 10, mean = 8, SD = 1.34
Head of the household
Me	25	25
Husband	40	40
Father	30	30
Son	5	5
Total	100	100
Educational level
Illiterate	33	35
Primary School	51	50
Secondary School	11	10
University	5	5
Total	100	100
Type of family
Nuclear (family + children only)	53	53
Extended	47	47
Total	100	100
Number of children
No children	0	0
Fewer than 5	14	14
6–10	70	70
11–15	16	16
Total	100	100
Source of income
Farming	71	71
Farming and other sources	29	29
Total	100	100

SD: standard deviation.

) categorizes the respondents by their sociodemographic characteristics. Approximately 78% of the participants were between the ages of 15 and 55 at the time of the study, with about 35% being illiterate. The survey results indicate that the majority of respondents (63%) were married, with a median number of five children per family. Additionally, 14% were single or separated, and 17% were widowed. Among the majority of females involved in urban agriculture, the primary motivation is to earn an income for their families. A statistically significant difference exists between respondents with formal education (67%) and those without formal education (33%). Among those with formal education, only 5% had completed tertiary education. Therefore, it is anticipated that education will influence farmers’ adoption of new agricultural technologies and their participation in agricultural activities. In this study, the urban female farmers do not represent illiterate farmworkers seeking supplemental income through farming; rather, they possess limited educational backgrounds.

Based on the study results, 53% of female farmers interviewed were members of nuclear families. In terms of family size, 82% of households had between six and ten members, with a particularly high number of children under the age of five among female farmers. Additionally, 25% of female farmers reported managing the digital farming processes of their households, and 71% indicated that their primary source of income was derived from digital urban agriculture.

On the basis of the quotes provided during interviews, a coding tree was created, categorizing them by key themes and subthemes. Through this coding tree, challenges raised by female farmers are organized into thematic categories for systematic analysis. By further analyzing each subtheme, patterns can be identified and targeted interventions can be developed.

1. Access to Credit

• Lack of Financial Institutions

  ○

  “Unavailability of banks and financial institutions in the area.”

  ○

  “There are no female agricultural organizations that can help us get credit.”

  ○

  “There is a lack of agricultural cooperatives.”

  ○

  “We are isolated from the center (services).”

• Barriers to Loan Access

  ○

  “We fear the risk of our crops failing.”

  ○

  “We do not meet the criteria for getting loans.”

  ○

  “We would like to get loans, but we do not know how.”

• Preferred Financing Options

  ○

  “We can accept finance through agricultural organizations.”

2. Challenges Related to Increasing Production

• Seed Accessibility

  ○

  “Unavailability of improved seeds or difficulty in accessing them.”

• Knowledge Gaps

  ○

  “We lack the knowledge to use insecticide.”

  ○

  “We lack access to agricultural extension.”

  ○

  “We do not have the knowledge to introduce new crops.”

  ○

  “We do not have the knowledge to use certain technologies/technical packages.”

  In this context, “technical packages” likely refers to specific technologies, tools, or methodologies used in digital urban agriculture. These could include software, hardware, or integrated systems designed to support urban farming, such as precision agriculture tools, IoT devices, or data analytics platforms. The lack of familiarity with these technologies may hinder their adoption and effective use in urban agricultural practices.

• Irrigation Challenges

  ○

  “We experience difficulties relating to irrigation methods and time.”

• Technical Difficulties

  ○

  “We have difficulties of technical methods.”

  Technical methods refer to challenges in adopting modern or smart irrigation practices, particularly among female farmers. These challenges stem from limited access to information, insufficient training, and a lack of resources or emphasis on modern techniques in the target region.

3. Small Land Area

• Limitations on Crop Expansion

  ○

  “Small land limit grows new crops.”

  ○

  “The land is insufficiently large to grow what we need to satisfy our needs.”

  ○

  “The smallness of the land area prevents us from growing fruit trees.”

• Financial Constraints

  ○

  “We do not have money to hire large areas of land.”

• Specific Land Size Issues

  ○

  “The land is small, only five feddan.”

  ○

  “The land is very small, we have only one feddan.”

  Referring to this point, the authors did not include questions about suitable technology for small land areas in the survey because the focus was on broader or different aspects, such as overall land management strategies or specific challenges unrelated to technology for small land areas. Alternatively, the authors assumed that participants would address this topic indirectly through other related questions.

4. Changes to New Crops

• Economic and Knowledge Barriers

  ○

  “Growing crops have high economic return like the fool masri. We cannot change to more profitable crops.”

  ○

  “We do not have information on the prices of the crops.”

  ○

  “We do not have the knowledge to introduce new crops.”

• Exclusion from Services

  ○

  “We are excluded from extension services.”

3. Results and Findings

3.1. Farming Characteristics, Entrepreneurial Activities, and Source of Labor for Digital Urban Agriculture

Figure 1 illustrates respondents’ entrepreneurial activities and the types of work outcomes involved in digital farming in Sudan. The study data, as depicted in Figure 1, reveals that two-thirds (71%) of female farmers in Sudan engage in urban farming on a full-time basis, while only one-third (29%) participate in digital farming on a part-time basis. Since the majority of female farmers in Sudan engage in farming for income, it is puzzling that only 29% are involved in digital farming. There might be a discrepancy between urban farming and digital farming in Sudan due to different definitions or interpretations of these terms. Clarification could lead to a better understanding of the relationship between these two types of farming and the reasons behind the varied levels of engagement. This finding is similar to that reported by Edeoghon and Izekor et al. [52] in their study of food access, distribution, and production constraints in Ikorodu Metropolis, Lagos State, Nigeria, which concluded that urban farmers are involved in other income-generating activities because of the seasonal nature of agriculture.

Subsistence digital farming was the most common form of farming practiced by female farmers, with 76% engaging in subsistence digital farming and 24% in commercial digital farming (Figure 2). Subsistence farming is seemingly preferred among female farmers as it focuses on producing crops and livestock primarily for family consumption, ensuring self-sufficiency and survival.

In contrast, only 4% of the female farmers surveyed reported engaging in mixed farming practices as part of their agricultural activities (Figure 3). Agricultural mixed farming is not recommended for female farmers in urban areas, likely due to the difficulties associated with managing both crops and livestock. Additionally, urban areas often have stricter regulations and higher costs related to livestock rearing, further discouraging this practice.

A majority of the land (45%) cultivated in the study area belongs to female farmers (Figure 4). Notably, there were no government land areas that were equally accessible to females, as accessibility to governmental land refers to legal ownership or leasing affordability. Additionally, 22% of respondents reported cultivating the land themselves, 22% on hired land, and 11% through sharecropping.

Figure 5 of this report indicates that the majority of female farmers use hired labor in addition to the labor provided by their own families (44%), while only 29% rely solely on family labor. Additionally, 27% of respondents reported a significant reliance on hired labor. This suggests potential challenges in managing agricultural operations with family labor alone, indicating that the scale or complexity of farming activities may necessitate additional support beyond family members. The relatively low percentage of farmers relying solely on family labor points to a broader trend of supplementing family efforts with hired help to meet agricultural demands.

3.2. Water Source, Patterns of Irrigation in Digital Urban Agriculture, and Types of Crops Grown by Females

Irrigation practices that are modern and/or smart have not been well established among female farmers. This may be caused by a lack of dissemination of information or a lack of emphasis on modern irrigation practices in the target region or demographic, as well as a lack of proper training or resources to implement these practices effectively. Consequently, outdated conventional methods may be used, resulting in inefficient water use and reduced agricultural productivity. Female farmers did not encounter difficulties accessing water during irrigation, which was essential to the operation’s success. Of the female farmers, 66% reported using water from the Blue Nile for irrigation, 30% from seasonal rivers, and only 4% from an underground source (Figure 6).

Furthermore, 50% of female farmers reported using diesel pumps for irrigating Gureir land or muddy land, while 30% used flood irrigation (Figure 7). The crops predominantly grown by these female farmers include okra, tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers, legumes (lubia, fool, masri), fodder, and Zura. The qualitative findings reveal that female farmers are still limited in their choice of crops. As noted by Foeken et al. [53], female farmers in urban areas primarily grow vegetables and annual crops as a major source of income.

In a study by Salau and Attah et al. [54], it is suggested that traditional leafy vegetables require less water, space, labor, and capital investment than other crops. Consequently, urban female farmers are not fully utilizing the entrepreneurial opportunities available to them. This also exemplifies how females are often stereotyped in agricultural production, with their limited access to productive resources largely restricting them to subsistence agriculture. Typical challenges faced by women in urban agriculture in Kwara State, Nigeria [55] and sub-Saharan Africa [56] emphasizing their limited access to resources, land tenure insecurity, and socio-economic constraints [57]

3.3. Livestock Production and Digital Urban Agriculture and Fertilizers Used

The livestock sector plays a crucial role in urban agriculture, providing farmers with a source of income and food. The survey results revealed that approximately 66% of female farmers prefer to keep goats rather than poultry within the backyard of their family homes, which freely roam neighborhood streets and farms (

Table 2. Frequency distribution of livestock production types by respondents.

Category	F	%
Poultry kept within the backyard of family home	3	3
Goat kept within the backyard of family home	66	66
Poultry and goats kept within the backyard of family home	15	15
No animals	16	16
Total	100	100

). Additionally, 15% indicated a mutual interest in keeping both poultry and goats, while 16% do not keep animals in their backyards. Generally, female farmers do not keep dairy animals due to the lack of grazing space. Regarding the use of fertilizers, 30% of female farmers use chemical fertilizers, whereas 70% use organic fertilizer (Figure 8).

3.4. Division of Labor and Farming-Related Responsibilities of Female Farmers

Females and males conduct farming activities differently, with men usually hiring laborers to prepare the land while females typically do the work themselves. However, manual land preparation requires a significant amount of energy beyond the capacity of most females, making it an impractical option. Figure 9 indicates that 90.0% of female farmers reported using hired labor to prepare their land for planting, as well as for planting, irrigation, weeding, and transplanting applications. In contrast, fertilization, pesticide application, harvesting, processing, transportation, and marketing of the crops were handled by hired laborers. Female farmers, however, were responsible for storing crop products.

3.5. Access, Control, and Benefits of Digital Urban Agriculture

The availability of credit facilities and inputs is one of the most critical factors in urban farming activities (Yueqing Ji et al. [58] and Yves Cabannes [59]). Most female farmers struggle to adopt new, innovative technologies, such as pumps, and make new investments due to a lack of formal lending sources and sufficient capital. Urban farming activities are heavily dependent on the availability of credit facilities and inputs. As shown in Figure 10, female farmers are at a significant disadvantage (95%) in terms of access to agricultural inputs and services. Approximately 5% of female farmers have access to credit services, 10% have access to improved seeds, and none have access to extension services.

Energy and nutrients are recycled in agricultural systems based on animal use. Manure produced by animals, such as grass, straw, and kitchen waste, is positively correlated with soil fertility (Stephen R. Gliessman et al. [60]). Successful organic agriculture requires the integration of animal husbandry. Figure 10 also illustrates that only 12% of respondents are familiar with cultivating certain crops and managing animal habitats. In many farming communities, caring for, training, and nurturing animals is viewed as an art form.

As shown in

Table 3. Frequency distribution of the benefits of digital urban agriculture to survey respondents.

Category	F	%
Household consumption (food security)
Yes	82	82
No	18	18
Total	100	100
Generation of income
Yes	80	80
No	40	40
Total	100	100
Satisfaction about income
Yes	40	40
No	60	60
Total	100	100

, female farmers reported that digital urban agriculture has proven beneficial to their lives, specifically in terms of food security and income generation (above 80%). However, only 40% of female farmers in urban agriculture reported being overall satisfied with the level of income they receive from urban agriculture as a whole. This dissatisfaction appears to be influenced by the overall costs and limitations associated with the practice. Similar reports indicate the crucial role played by female farmers in agriculture and food security, particularly in regions like Northern Kordofan State, Sudan [61,62]

3.6. Food Security, Nutrition, and Decision-Making in Digital Urban Agriculture

Figure 11 indicates that 78% of all respondents can provide their families with enough food, and 66% reported significant improvements in the quality of their food due to urban agriculture. Additionally, between 75 and 76% of respondents reported an increase in household food diversity and the nutritional quality of children’s diets.

Due to the lack of a comprehensive survey, it was difficult to accurately assess the nutritional adequacy of respondents’ diets based solely on field visits. Given that female farmers primarily cultivate specific types of crops, it is reasonable to infer that these crops constitute a significant portion of their households’ diets. The prevalence of okra monocultures suggests that this crop is a staple in the diets of most participants. In urban areas, where food shortages and hunger are prevalent, urban agriculture serves as an important alternative source of income. This is achieved through the cultivation of crops in backyards or undeveloped land plots, as well as through livestock rearing (O.J. Ovharhe et al. [63]). Moreover, urban agriculture not only provides a nutritious alternative to purchased food for impoverished populations but also enhances food security (Melissa Poulsen et al. [64]). Families engaged in urban agriculture are more likely to access a diverse range of nutritious foods, including vegetables and animal products, compared to those not involved in such activities.

Table 4. Frequency distribution of respondents according to their decision-making involvement concerning urban agriculture-related tasks.

Tasks Related to Digital Urban Agriculture	Male %	Female %	Both %
Use of land (size)	66	24	10
What to produce	60	20	20
When to produce	60	42	30
Where to produce	80	10	10
How to produce	70	20	10
Why to produce	20	70	10
Sale of products	60	20	20
Practice digital urban agriculture	40	60	-
Consumption and division of food	0	100	0
Raising animals	0	80	20

provides insight into the distribution of respondents based on their level of decision-making involvement in urban agriculture. Female farmers have limited influence over the size of their agricultural lands, with only 24% indicating such involvement. Predominantly, male farmers control decisions related to agricultural production, including crop selection, planting locations, and timing, as well as the selling of agricultural products. Female farmers rarely participate in these decision-making processes but are more likely to decide the motivations behind production (70%) (Table 4).

Furthermore, 60% of female farmers reported being responsible for making decisions related to digital urban agriculture. They also have full authority over food consumption and distribution within their households or community divisions. Additionally, 80% of female farmers indicated that they make decisions concerning the use of animals in digital urban agriculture.

3.7. Institutional Support, Challenges and Opportunities for Digital Urban Agriculture

The majority of female farmers reported a lack of institutional or social support, with only 15% reporting membership in an organization dedicated to females, while 68% of respondents could not justify their claims (Figure 12). This lack of institutional support also affects female farmers practicing digital urban agriculture by limiting their access to resources, funding, and training opportunities, which can hinder their ability to make informed decisions and effectively manage their agricultural activities (Theresa Nogeire-McRae et al. [65], Kennard, N.J et al. [66]). The stigma associated with digital urban agriculture, coupled with its perceived link to poverty, often results in female urban agricultural farmers experiencing a lack of ‘voice’ (Steve Hallett et al. [67]). To enhance the organization of these female farmers, it is essential to establish a framework that enables them to articulate their needs, fostering internal cohesion and support. As female farmers become more involved in urban agricultural production, they encounter challenges similar to those faced by their male counterparts in farming operations.

In addition to the challenges faced by female urban farmers, they are also confronted with issues such as floods, labor shortages, pests, diseases, unpredictable weather conditions, lack of time due to their multifaceted roles, and theft. Ester Boserup’s work during the 1970s [68] contributed to understanding the place of females in developing economies and the challenges they face, leading to projects aimed at empowering females to eliminate their economic exclusion due to gender.

Women farmers, however, face several challenges that reduce their economic and productivity potential. For urban agriculture to become more relevant to women, barriers such as inadequate storage facilities, marketing challenges, crop variability, and insufficient farm inputs must be overcome. Figure 13 illustrates several limitations faced by female farmers, including insufficient storage facilities (40%), marketing difficulties (64%), crop variability (75%), limited access to extension agents and services (76%), farm inputs (79%), land ownership issues (82%), and a lack of credit access (90%).

The qualitative interviews with female farmers in Khartoum State revealed diverse experiences and perspectives. One participant shared, “Farming has always been a challenge, but with the rising costs of inputs, it’s becoming nearly impossible to sustain our livelihoods.” Another farmer emphasized the importance of community support, stating, “Without the cooperatives, I wouldn’t have access to the resources or knowledge I need to continue farming.” These insights highlight the multifaceted challenges and resilience of female farmers in the region.

It has been found that female farmers have very limited chances of cultivating more food compared to their male counterparts in the realm of digital urban agriculture. Survey results indicated that 90% of respondents reported limited economic opportunities, 83% reported hindrances in growing more food, 95% faced challenges to improving earnings, and 96% reported strategies in support they received (see Figure 14). Female farmers may experience varying degrees of success with their support strategies. While some strategies may be beneficial to digital urban agriculture, others may not adequately address their specific needs and challenges.

4. Discussion and Recommendations

Participants in the study in Sudan indicated that agriculture served as their primary source of income and that they were the heads of their households (Table 1). Their profiles revealed low educational attainment and high dependency. Additionally, the study found that female farmers in Sudan engaged in subsistence farming on a full-time basis (Figure 2). Despite employing various methods to access land, the majority of females in Sudan did not own the land they farmed (Figure 4). The exclusion of females from land ownership in Sudan adversely affects food security and productivity, as noted by Hilary et al. [69]. According to Elddis et al. [70], denying females access to natural resources leads to a decline in living standards among farming families, as females rely on their agricultural income for their livelihood. The study identified a disparity in farming activities between male and female farmers in Sudan. Land preparation is typically carried out by female farmers with the help of laborers. Due to the manual nature of the land preparation process, it is an energy-intensive task that most females are unable to perform alone. The majority of female farmers in Sudan are excluded from credit services, as demonstrated in Figure 10. Financing services were accessible to only 5% of female farmers, improved seeds to 10%, and extension services were unavailable to any female farmers.

The study revealed that female farmers in Sudan benefited from urban agriculture in terms of food security and income generation (Table 3), prompting the question of whether females made or controlled the decision to engage in urban agriculture. Overall, 60% of female farmers in Sudan reported that they were responsible for deciding where to practice urban farming (Table 4). The lack of institutional support was found to negatively impact females engaged in urban agriculture in Sudan. Rural farming in Sudan is perceived as a form of poverty that contributes to women’s marginalization and limits their access to education and economic opportunities. This perception often reinforces traditional gender roles, preventing women from participating in decision-making processes and hindering their ability to improve their socio-economic status. Consequently, rural women face systemic barriers that perpetuate cycles of poverty.

To enhance internal cohesion and support among these farmers, it is necessary to strengthen their organization and provide a structure for articulating their needs. The majority of female farmers interviewed in Sudan reported a lack of institutional or social support (Figure 12).

In our study, we identified several challenges faced by female digital urban agriculture farmers in Sudan. Female farmers in Sudan have very limited opportunities to grow more food. In general, over 90% of female farmers in Sudan reported that they did not receive any assistance in growing cash crops (Figure 14). According to the World Water Day 2012 report [71], females constitute 63% of agricultural workers worldwide but have limited rights of ownership and participation. The report suggests that many females’ families and communities would benefit from more opportunities and rights regarding support for farm work and farming techniques. Female farmers in Sudan remain largely excluded from empowering tools that could improve their productivity and livelihoods (Michael Kevane et al. [72], S. Daoud et al. [73]. These include limited access to finance (credits for purchasing seeds, hand tools, and land; insurance and savings to reduce shocks and risks); physical labor (preparation, cultivation, and cleaning of land); and technical knowledge (regarding fertilizers, pesticide application, and conservation or sustainable farming).

Recommendations

• A framework can be developed by identifying the key stages, tools, and strategies involved in the transition to digital systems. It should include steps such as assessing current systems, setting objectives, selecting appropriate technologies, implementing changes, and monitoring outcomes.
• Female farmers’ involvement in digital urban agriculture should be promoted and supported on official agendas that support their individual, practical, and strategic goals, and ultimately challenge the structural conditions which led to their involvement in the activity in the first place, in order to benefit rather than burden them.
• An effective digital urban agriculture base is essential to create awareness, among the public, policymakers, donors, and local civil society actors, of the need for a comprehensive strategy for urban female farmers and a related action plan for Khartoum, Sudan. It is also necessary to effectively disseminate this digital information in order to make it available to the public for discussion.
• The development of men and female through local-level groups enhances the security of poor people’s livelihoods, and a special focus should be placed on the needs of different groups based on their demographic characteristics (age, gender, status, etc.). Local collectives may include savings and credit groups, informal mutual aid and insurance groups, cooperatives, or groups that manage common property resources. Programs and regulations that support these groups will be beneficial and required.
• In order to promote gender equality in agriculture, it is necessary to address systemic barriers and to provide women with equal opportunities to participate fully and equitably in all aspects of agricultural production, decision-making, and resource management. Among the key strategies are access to resources: ensuring that women have equal access to land, credit, seeds, fertilizers, and modern farming tools. This can be achieved through legal reforms, financial inclusion programs, and targeted subsidies. Policy and legal support are also essential to protecting the rights of women to land ownership, inheritance, and participation in agricultural cooperatives. Furthermore, social and cultural change will be addressed through community engagement, awareness campaigns, and advocacy for gender-sensitive approaches to agriculture.
• By integrating these strategies, agricultural systems can become more inclusive, equitable, and sustainable, contributing to improved livelihoods and food security for all. It is also vital to collaborate with other agencies that have developed social protection programs in order to minimize piloting and maximize learning and application lessons. To collaborate with other agencies that have developed social protection programs in order to minimize piloting and maximize learning and application lessons.
• Providing female farmers with access to digital urban agricultural extension programs in order to facilitate the acquisition of technical knowledge and advanced technology would be crucial in, improving their role in food security and community development. This will also assist in the transition to media that significantly impacts cultural change, particularly in the manner in which people use communication media, seek information, and are given information.
• It is crucial to organize female farmers into groups so that they can have better access to credit and marketing opportunities in the future. As a result of this organization, they will be able to pool resources, share knowledge, and gain collective bargaining power. It is imperative for female farmers to be able to receive adequate credit in order to expand their farms, invest in better technology, and increase their productivity. In addition to being a part of organized groups, female farmers can also benefit from training programs and support networks that can help them improve their agricultural practices and business acumen to increase their success rates. There should be a link between civil society organizations that work in the relevant areas and female farmers so that networking and potential partnerships can be formed.
• Through mobilization and awareness programs, it is important to promote female farmers with some control over resources and experience in decision-making.
• Farming households, as well as communities and organizations concerned, should consider the role and bargaining power of female in decision-making. In communities, the extent to which female participate in group activities may have a significant impact on the decision-making power of female farmers. Through these activities, female farmers are able to pool their resources, skills, information, time, and energy in a cooperative manner.
• To promote females’ participation in digital urban agriculture research and development, detailed digital guidelines and tools must be developed. It is important to provide global evidence as well as guidelines that have been tested in the field. Policymakers, planners, researchers, and practitioners involved in urban agriculture programs should be familiar with research on the role played by female farmers in feeding cities.

5. Conclusions

Female farmers in Khartoum State face specific challenges within the digital urban agricultural sector, as highlighted by this study. They feel largely invisible and excluded, with limited recognition of their roles. This exclusion is compounded by a lack of understanding of the unique needs of urban female farmers, which restricts their participation and increases their workload.

The study reveals that female farmers are often excluded from critical decisions regarding farm inputs and digital agriculture production, limiting their ability to enhance production and fully engage in digital agricultural enterprises. Training and extension programs are also largely inaccessible, leaving female farmers without the technical knowledge needed to address farming challenges.

Gender disparities are evident in the division of digital farming activities. For instance, land preparation, an energy-intensive task, is typically carried out by laborers hired by female farmers, while men control marketing and commercialization, overseeing all commercial transactions. Furthermore, most female farmers in urban areas are poorly organized, lacking the formal structures needed to advocate for their needs. This limits their influence in urban policy and planning, as well as their participation in development programs. Access to resources such as land, tenure arrangements, and credit—which is key for empowering farmers—remains a significant challenge.

Empirical evidence from the study underscores digital urban agriculture’s multifaceted role. While some female farmers use it to support their households, others see it as a pathway to generate income, develop new skills, and participate in decision-making processes. The result will be a more inclusive and sustainable urban food system and a reduction in gender disparities in agriculture.

For instance, women are able to gain financial independence, build networks, and enhance their skills. This, in turn, contributes to their overall well-being and strengthens their role in community development. However, the lack of access to modern agricultural resources, such as mechanized equipment, agrochemicals, and improved seedlings, hinders their productivity and profitability. Despite their continued engagement in urban agriculture, female farmers rely on traditional tools, which further limits their potential in the sector.