Entrepreneurs’ Life Satisfaction Built on Satisfaction with Job and Work–Family Balance: Embedded in Society in China, Finland, and Sweden
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theory and Hypotheses
2.1. National Differences in Satisfaction and Hofstede’s Cultural Dimension Theory
2.2. National Differences in Satisfaction and Self-Determination Theory
2.3. National Differences in Job Satisfaction and Entrepreneurship
2.4. National Differences in Work–Family Balance Satisfaction and Entrepreneurship
2.5. National Differences in Life Satisfaction and Entrepreneurship
3. Methodology
3.1. Data and Sample
3.1.1. Data
3.1.2. Sampling
3.2. Measurements
3.2.1. Life Satisfaction
In most ways my life is close to my ideal.(Item 1 for LS)
The conditions of my life are excellent.(Item 2 for LS)
I am satisfied with my life.(Item 3 for LS)
So far I have obtained the important things I want in life.(Item 4 for LS)
If I could live my life again, I would not change anything.(Item 5 for LS)
3.2.2. Job Satisfaction
I can decide on my own how I go about doing my work.(Item 1 for JS)
The work I do is meaningful to me.(Item 2 for JS)
At my work, I am not exposed to excessive stress.(Item 3 for JS)
I am satisfied with my current work.(Item 4 for JS)
I am satisfied with my current income from work.(Item 5 for JS)
3.2.3. Work–Family Balance Satisfaction
I am satisfied with the way my time is divided between work and private life.(Item 1 for WBS)
I am satisfied with my ability to balance the needs of my work with those of my personal or family life.(Item 2 for WBS)
I am satisfied with the opportunity to perform well at work and to substantially contribute to home-related responsibilities at the same time.(Item 3 for WBS)
3.2.4. Occupation
3.2.5. Country
3.2.6. Control Variables
- -
- Gender, coded 0 for women and 1 for men;
- -
- Age, coded in years, ranging from 18 to 64 years;
- -
- Education, coded in years of school to the highest completed degree;
- -
- Income, coded 1 for the lowest third of family incomes among the respondents in the country, 2 for the middle third, and 3 for the highest third of incomes among the respondents in the country.
4. Results
4.1. Confirmatory Factor Analysis
4.2. Common Method Bias Testing
4.3. Background of the Entrepreneurs and Employees
4.4. Differences in Satisfaction
4.5. Effects on Satisfaction
5. Discussion
5.1. Limitations and Future Directions
5.2. Practical Implications
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Measurement Items | Factor Loading | Cronbach’s α | Cumulative % of Variance | CR | AVE | KMO | Bartlett Test | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Approx. Chi-Square | Sig. | ||||||||
Life satisfaction | Item 1 for LS | 0.832 | 0.826 | 60.216% | 0.882 | 0.6022 | 0.84 | 9708.980 | 0.000 |
Item 2 for LS | 0.839 | ||||||||
Item 3 for LS | 0.839 | ||||||||
Item 4 for LS | 0.729 | ||||||||
Item 5 for LS | 0.616 | ||||||||
Job satisfaction | Item 1 for JS | 0.796 | 0.734 | 50.051% | 0.8305 | 0.5005 | 0.755 | 5875.424 | 0.000 |
Item 2 for JS | 0.726 | ||||||||
Item 3 for JS | 0.561 | ||||||||
Item 4 for JS | 0.822 | ||||||||
Item 5 for JS | 0.593 | ||||||||
Work–family balance satisfaction | Item 1 for WBS | 0.85 | 0.818 | 73.399% | 0.8921 | 0.7339 | 0.702 | 5518.584 | 0.000 |
Item 2 for WBS | 0.889 | ||||||||
Item 3 for WBS | 0.83 |
China | Finland | Sweden | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Entrepreneurs | Employees | Entrepreneurs | Employees | Entrepreneurs | Employees | ||
Sample | Number of respondents | 889 | 1547 | 219 | 1090 | 168 | 1184 |
Gender | Percent men | 54% | 50% | 68% | 48% | 69% | 54% |
Age | Mean years of age | 36.7 y | 36.7 y | 40.8 y | 40.8 y | 44.9 y | 44.8 y |
Education | Mean years of education | 14.7 y | 14.7 y | 15.6 y | 15.6 y | 16.6 y | 16.6 y |
Income | Mean on scale of 1 to 3 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 2.3 |
Life | Bala. | Job | Occu. | Gend. | Age | Educ. | Inco. | Finl. | Swed. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Life satisf. | (0.776) | |||||||||
Balance satisf. | 0.48 *** | (0.857) | ||||||||
Job satisf. | 0.58 *** | 0.57 *** | (0.707) | |||||||
Occup: Entrep. | −0.028 * | −0.026 † | 0.06 *** | |||||||
Gender: Male | 0.026 † | 0.011 | −0.048 ** | −0.07 *** | ||||||
Age | 0.15 *** | 0.14 *** | 0.16 *** | 0.027 † | −0.023 † | |||||
Education | 0.15 *** | 0.05 *** | 0.117 *** | −0.18 *** | 0.063 *** | −0.04 ** | ||||
Income | 0.15 *** | 0.023 | 0.097 *** | 0.01 | −0.029 * | 0.059 *** | 0.28 *** | |||
Finland | 0.27 *** | 0.21 *** | 0.16 *** | −0.11 *** | 0.016 | 0.046 ** | 0.047 ** | −0.011 | ||
Sweden | 0.17 *** | 0.06 *** | 0.15 *** | −0.18 *** | −0.04 ** | 0.246 *** | 0.291 *** | 0.08 *** | −0.35 *** | |
China | −0.38 *** | −0.24 *** | −0.27 *** | 0.25 *** | 0.021 | −0.257 *** | −0.298 *** | −0.058 *** | −0.56 *** | −0.58 *** |
(a) Satisfaction in China, Finland, and Sweden. | ||||||
China | Finland | Sweden | ||||
Life satisfaction | 3.12 | 3.83 *** | 3.69 *** | |||
Job satisfaction | 3.32 | 3.71 *** | 3.70 *** | |||
Balance satisfaction | 3.42 | 3.92 *** | 3.72 *** | |||
(b) Satisfaction of entrepreneurs and employees in China, Finland, and Sweden. | ||||||
Entrepreneurs | Employees | Entrepreneurs | Employees | Entrepreneurs | Employees | |
Life satisfaction | 3.25 *** | 3.04 | 3.87 ns | 3.82 | 3.69 ns | 3.69 |
Job satisfaction | 3.47 *** | 3.23 | 3.90 *** | 3.68 | 3.91 *** | 3.67 |
Balance satisfaction | 3.52 *** | 3.36 | 3.78 * | 3.95 | 3.70 ns | 3.72 |
Job Satisfaction | Balance Satisfaction | Life Satisfaction | ||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | Model 6 | Model 7 | Model 8 | Model 9 | ||||||||||
β | VIF | β | VIF | β | VIF | β | VIF | β | VIF | β | VIF | β | VIF | β | VIF | β | VIF | |
Occupation: entrepreneur | 0.24 *** | 1.421 | 0.24 *** | 1.387 | 0.23 *** | 1.728 | 0.15 *** | 1.421 | 0.15 *** | 1.387 | 0.15 *** | 1.728 | 0.20 *** | 1.421 | 0.20 *** | 1.387 | 0.19 *** | 1.728 |
Finland | 0.41 *** | 1.410 | 0.57 *** | 1.410 | 0.75 *** | 1.410 | ||||||||||||
Sweden | 0.32 *** | 1.582 | 0.26 *** | 1.582 | 0.55 *** | 1.582 | ||||||||||||
Finland and Sweden | 0.38 *** | 1.544 | 0.44 *** | 1.544 | 0.67 *** | 1.544 | ||||||||||||
Occupation: entrepreneur * Finland | −0.03 H1a | 1.506 | −0.34 *** H2a | 1.506 | −0.16 * H3a | 1.506 | ||||||||||||
Occupation: entrepreneur * Sweden | −0.05 H1b | 1.401 | −0.22 ** H2b | 1.401 | −0.23 ** H3b | 1.401 | ||||||||||||
Occupation: entrepreneur * Finland and Sweden | −0.03 | 1.732 | −0.26 *** | 1.732 | −0.16 ** | 1.732 | ||||||||||||
Job satisfaction | ||||||||||||||||||
Balance satisfaction | ||||||||||||||||||
Gender: Male | −0.04 † | 1.012 | −0.02 | 1.009 | −0.05 * | 1.016 | −0.003 | 1.012 | 0.07 ** | 1.009 | 0.03 | 1.016 | 0.03 | 1.012 | 0.07 ** | 1.009 | 0.07 ** | 1.016 |
Age | 0.01 *** | 1.096 | 0.01 *** | 1.182 | 0.01 *** | 1.106 | 0.01 *** | 1.096 | 0.01 *** | 1.182 | 0.01 *** | 1.106 | 0.00 ** | 1.096 | 0.01 *** | 1.182 | 0.003 ** | 1.106 |
Education | 0.01 ** | 1.234 | 0.02 *** | 1.346 | 0.02 *** | 1.238 | 0.00 | 1.234 | 0.01 † | 1.346 | −0.003 | 1.238 | 0.01 | 1.234 | 0.02 ** | 1.346 | 0.004 | 1.238 |
Income | 0.04 ** | 1.111 | 0.05 ** | 1.123 | 0.06 *** | 1.101 | −0.002 | 1.111 | 0.03 | 1.123 | 0.01 | 1.101 | 0.12 *** | 1.111 | 0.12 *** | 1.123 | 0.14 *** | 1.101 |
Intercept | 2.83 *** | 2.51 *** | 2.75 *** | 3.11 *** | 2.72 *** | 3.14 *** | 2.54 *** | 2.21 *** | 2.47 *** | |||||||||
N respondents | 3745 | 3788 | 5097 | 3745 | 3788 | 5097 | 3745 | 3788 | 5097 |
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Gao, J.; Chen, T.; Schøtt, T.; Gu, F. Entrepreneurs’ Life Satisfaction Built on Satisfaction with Job and Work–Family Balance: Embedded in Society in China, Finland, and Sweden. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5721. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095721
Gao J, Chen T, Schøtt T, Gu F. Entrepreneurs’ Life Satisfaction Built on Satisfaction with Job and Work–Family Balance: Embedded in Society in China, Finland, and Sweden. Sustainability. 2022; 14(9):5721. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095721
Chicago/Turabian StyleGao, Junguang, Tao Chen, Thomas Schøtt, and Fuzhen Gu. 2022. "Entrepreneurs’ Life Satisfaction Built on Satisfaction with Job and Work–Family Balance: Embedded in Society in China, Finland, and Sweden" Sustainability 14, no. 9: 5721. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095721