Motivation and Performance of Students in School Physical Education in Which Mobile Applications Are Used

Abstract

The aim of the text is to discuss the use of technologies in Physical Education (PE) at schools. The research focused on the pupils of an upper-primary school/lower-secondary school, who were given experimental PE for a period of 10 weeks. The research objective was to identify typical groups of students on the basis of their physical performances and motivation. Unifittest 6-60, a standardized motor-skills test, was used to measure physical performances, and the Czech translation of SIMS, a Canadian–American standardized test, was used to specify the degree of motivation. Based on the obtained data, the method of cluster analysis identified three typical groups of pupils. These three groups differ in their approach to the use of mobile applications in the process of PE. The research results show that thanks to the implementation of mobile phones in the process of PE and thanks to a different approach taken by the teacher, increased internal motivation and an increase in identified regulation can be seen, as well as a decrease in amotivation and a rapid increase in motor performances, especially in the case of students whose performances are average or below average in usual PE classes.

1. Introduction

The use of digital technologies in education has found supporters and opponents during its existence, both among the public and professionals. Even nowadays, there are continuous discussions about whether and when to include digital technologies in education, what the content should be, the extent children should be using them, and so on. These and other questions have given rise to a number of studies that found digital technology in education has both beneficial and harmful aspects. Nevertheless, the use of digital technologies and the development of digital competences is an indispensable component of school curricula in many European countries, including the Czech Republic. This article focuses on the use of digital technologies within one subject of the Czech educational curriculum, and that is Physical Education. The main framework of this study derives from self-determination theory (SDT), which has been applied through several domains including education [1]. At the same time, it directly touches on target 4.7 of the Sustainable Development Goals, which is to “ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles” by 2030. We believe that physical activity is one of the conditions for a healthy and sustainable lifestyle. Higher education institutions, specifically faculties of education, can and should contribute by reflecting new, evidence-based approaches, while incorporating them into the syllabi of subjects for pre-service teacher training.

Regular physical activity is generally thought to be an appropriate kind of prevention against diseases of civilization. According to the WHO, diseases of civilization cause up to 70% of all deaths in the world every year. However, current research shows that people, including children and adolescents, do not physically exercise sufficiently. This fact is confirmed, for example, by Peltzer and Pengpid [2], who focused their research (from 2007 till 2013) on 30,284 Asian primary school children aged 13–15. The Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) questionnaire was used in their research, to reveal the respondents’ approach to their own behaviour. Nearly 80% of the respondents did not meet the health recommendations, i.e., 1 h of physical activity per day. Girls (80.4%) were slightly more passive than boys (76.5%). According to the authors, this reality is caused by the following facts: passive transport, low attendance of school Physical Education lessons, and/or physical activities insufficiently supported by parents.

Similar conclusions were made by Watterson et al. [3], who focused their research on the population of children aged 9–18 in the USA. The Center of Disease Control revealed, in research carried out in 2017, that only 27% of respondents met the health recommendations for physical activities. The authors also asked whether it is possible to use mobile phones as a kind of support for meeting the health recommendations concerning the daily amount of physical activity and the daily consumption of fruits and vegetables. Their experiment confirmed the existence of a larger motivation in the case of pupils using mobile phones to follow these recommendations than in the case of pupils using pedometers and manually writing everything down. That is why the authors recommend incorporating these modern technologies standardly into the teaching process. A recent study by Papastergiou et al. [4] describes similar processes, when it comes to students’ intrinsic motivation in a PE lesson. The authors claim that higher levels of interest and enjoyment appear, even if children share one tablet in a group during PE lessons. Nevertheless, all pupils, no matter if in the control or experimental group, showed nearly the same effort and competences in the activities performed. Pupils aged 10–12 participated in this study, and the authors further analysed the group in terms of gender and age, which resulted in the conclusion that there are no differences between those factors.

A great potential of ICT and, especially, mobile applications in the sphere of supporting physical activities has been discussed recently. Matthews, Win, Oinas-Kukkonen, and Freeman [5] try to clarify the reason why people search for these specific mobile applications. Their extensive research showed that the most important motivational aspect for users is self-observation monitoring of their own performances–of such factors as the distance travelled, the number of steps made, actively and passively spent leisure time, self-improvement, etc. Other motivational aspects that were also mentioned were monitoring related to meeting health recommendations, generating types of physical exercises based on the personal preferences expressed in the initial questionnaire, or the possibility of adapting an exercise program to personal ideas.

A smaller demand for feedback, when using mobile applications for promoting a healthy lifestyle, was noticed by Chen et al. [6]. Their research focused on the physical activities and diet recommended to a population of Australian diabetics, through a user application and by sending text messages. Although the participants in the research study became better aware of the dietary principles, their physical activities got worse. The authors came to the conclusion that applications should work on the principle of making efforts to change the users’ behaviour. Additionally, research carried out by Shin, Kim, and Lee [7] revealed that long-term goals in the sphere of physical activities can only be met if well-thought-out strategies that ensure the ultimate effectiveness of these applications on physical activities are implemented.

An analysis of mobile applications to support physical activity was performed by Yang et al. [8]. They found out that only a minimum of the existing applications of this category are programmed in a way that aims at bringing about changes in the behaviour of the individuals who use them. The applications were most often connected to social networks. The results showed that there is a lack of feedback and praise, a lack of communication with the other physically exercising individuals, and a lack of demonstration and technique correction. According to Arigo et al. [9], comparing the results of one’s own physical activity with other people’s results can have a positive effect. It is important to implement the knowledge and findings presented in the current literature in the future development of these specific applications. The authors add that revealing and clarifying the most effective way of sharing one’s performances with other people will be an issue of further research. Depper and Howe [10] consider the contribution of mobile applications to increased physical activities as a promising motivating factor. On the other hand, their interviews in five focus groups consisting of eight girls aged 14–17 showed, among other things, that physical activities with the mobile applications deprive the physically active persons of social contacts and interactivity with the others. The authors also warn against non-critical acceptance of these applications.

Villalba, Rivera, and Pulido [11] consider the implementation of ICT in school Physical Education to be a great challenge for teachers. In their research, they interviewed 400 teachers involved in Physical Education at lower secondary schools. These respondents rarely included ICT in their teaching. They explained that with the following factors: little time to prepare the lessons as well as the necessity to install and test all applications. Some teachers were also reluctant to digitize the contents of Physical Education for their personal reasons, but, in particular, they argued that it meant less time for physical activities themselves. The need to implement mobile applications into Physical Education in a long-term horizon is also emphasized by Gao and Lee [12], who carried out a pedagogical experiment to measure the impact of modified Physical Education on physical-activity results and on sedentary behavior, respectively. Due to a short-term intervention (only 2 weeks), the authors failed to prove the impact of mobile applications, but they claimed that teachers should always carefully select mobile applications implemented in Physical Education, as these applications should be appropriate for the contents of the given lessons. Increasing the motivation for Physical Education through the use of ICT was researched by Legrain [13]. On the basis of their research, they claimed that, due to a higher autonomy of pupils in the classes of Physical Education in which ICT are applied, there is a better saturation of the pupils’ internal needs, and, consequently, their motivation for the subject increases. Yerrakalva et al. [14] add that, although statistically significant differences and health effects of exercising with mobile applications will be seen only after a longer follow-up period, differences in monitored groups are evident even after a short-term intervention.

Numerous authors discuss a large number of applications aimed at supporting a healthy lifestyle, especially at supporting physical activities and a healthy diet. Palička et al. [15] tried to make certain the classification of these applications, subdividing them into several categories: (1) Trackers—use the GPS sensor in a phone and enable evaluation of the physical properties of physical activities. (2) Personal trainers—provide instructions for complex or specific exercises including recording of one’s own training process. (3) Exergames—are gamified physical challenges; if you meet them, you win/improve your profile. (4) Educational applications—mainly use educational videos; they omit the GPS sensor. (5) Sports social networks—are specific websites/applications that join users, who have the same interests or who are offered the same contents, together.

A pedagogical experiment that had the form of 10 modified lessons of Physical Education of pupils aged 12–15 was carried out by Maněnová, Knajfl, and Palička [16]. The intervention variable was the use of mobile applications. Statistically significant differences appeared in some items of the motor-skills test and also in some items of the mental-well-being test. Pupils who practiced in a “new way” had better cardiovascular endurance because they also continued to use the applications at home and in their spare time. An interesting finding was made: mental well-being worsened and higher irritability appeared due to the sharing of the performances from the applications on social networks (e.g., Facebook). The focus-group interviews revealed that the most popular was “the new Physical Education” with the pupils who are normally outsiders. These pupils showed the greatest individual improvement in motor tests.

Experimental Physical Education with the use of iPads and specific mobile applications to support physical activities was also carried out by Zhu and Dragon [17]. In total, 53 children aged 10–12 were involved in the experiment; they were divided into the control and experimental groups. For 2 weeks, the same content related to physical activities was applied to these groups, but the forms applied were different. Both groups showed an increased motivation for the activities at the output measurement compared to the input measurement. When being compared with the other group, the control group showed a higher motivation. The authors claimed that the contents of the lessons and the forms of the instructions are essential. It was more convenient for the children to be instructed by the teacher. The authors also mention the fact that the decisive factors for the effectiveness of ICT used in teaching are the group dynamics of the participants and the existence of good knowledge of the applications before the real implementation of the modified teaching.

The above conclusions imply that digital technologies can have significantly high potential in physical education, mainly when it comes to the intrinsic motivation of users to do physical activities. Nonetheless, there are several conditions to be met to make it effective. This is confirmed in a study by Setiawan et al. [18], who work on the continuous development of such applications, since users’ needs, such as the requirements for the design and functions that encourage pupils’ physical activities, may alter over time. All presented studies were seeking the answer to what is influenced by digital technologies in physical education and to what extent. However, none of the studies investigated the experimental group further than comparing the gender and age of its participants. Our initial research was also based on a comparison between the experimental and control groups (as described below), nevertheless we sought to investigate if there are some significant similarities based on the motor performances and motivation within the experimental group’s participants after the intervention, i.e., to identify if there are any groups (clusters) of pupils with the same characteristics within the experimental group.

2. Materials and Methods

The high popularity of mobile devices and insufficient physical activities performed by children and adolescents currently cause the increased frequency of diseases of civilization, such as overweight, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular diseases. If ICT, especially “smart devices” such as tablets or mobile phones and appropriately selected mobile applications, are implemented into teaching, an increase in motivation for the school Physical Education and increased physical activities can be expected.

The objective of this study is to find out if it is possible to identify groups of pupils on the basis of results of their motor performance and level of their motivation for Physical Education, with Physical Education lessons that were carried out through the implementation of smart mobile devices and specific applications aimed at supporting the pupils’ physical activities, motivation, and performances in the given school subject.

The objective of this article is not to describe the differences between the students of the control group and of the experimental group, but to describe the motor performances and motivation of the experimental group students that were revealed after the intervention and to specify typical groups of students formed on the basis of the results reached in the tests.

Partial objectives:

• To analyse students’ motor performances given after the pedagogical intervention.
• To analyse the structure of motivation after the pedagogical intervention.
• To identify and describe groups of students formed on the basis of the students’ motor performance and motivation.

The initial research method was a pedagogical experiment, which was carried out during a period of 3 months (from March to May 2019). Within the framework of 10 modified classes of Physical Education, differences in motor performances and motivation appearing in school Physical Education were researched in upper-primary school pupils/lower-secondary school pupils. A group of 237 pupils (120 boys and 117 girls) aged 11–16 participated in the experiment. The experimental group consisted of the total number of 118 pupils, out of whom there were 70 boys and 48 girls. The intervening variable was the implementation of mobile applications used for supporting physical activities and varying of the approach of the teacher to the management of lessons.

The contents and topics of individual classes of Physical Education were based on the school educational program, elaborated for the school subject of Physical Education taught at the upper level of primary school, and their selection depended also on the local equipment, facilities, and space conditions. The length of each lesson was 2 × 45 min. The control group did their physical activities in the classical way—the classes were controlled and directed by the teacher, so the pupils performed the assigned tasks. To get acquainted with the contents of the lesson, the experimental group used specific, available mobile applications and launched them on school tablets. The pupils were exposed to such situations in which they had the opportunity to acquire new knowledge and, especially, motor skills through specific mobile applications. Every child used their own device. The method of group work and the didactic style of independent and controlled discovery were applied.

• Lesson—introduction (the program and conducting of the classes)
• Basic gymnastics, stretching
• Ice skating
• Dancing and rhythmic gymnastics
• Basics of martial sports
• Sports games—football
• Body strength training
• Orienteering–gamebook
• Athletic disciplines
• Evaluation of the program, feedback

Used applications: e.g., Google Fit, Break Dance tutorial, Zumba Fitness, Gymnastic Training, Train Effective: Football, and others.

Research tools

To measure motor performances, Unifittest 6-60 [19], a motor-skills test standardized for the Czech Republic, was used. The test consists of the following four test items:

T1 Standing long jump

• explosive power of the lower limbs is tested
• jump distance in centimetres

T2 Repetitive sit-ups

• dynamic endurance strength of the abdominal muscles is tested
• number of repetitions per minute

T3 Endurance shuttle run

• long-term running-endurance ability is tested
• beep test—the number of beep repetitions

T4 Shuttle run 4 × 10 m

• running-speed ability is tested
• time period in seconds

This heterogeneous test battery was applied according to the methodology presented by Chytráčková and Měkota [19], the authors of the test.

Motivation was measured through the Canadian–American standardized SIMS questionnaire (the Situation Motivational Scale), which maps motivation and its sub-scales. The questionnaire is based on self-determination theory (SDT), according to which human motivation is affected mainly by the degree of meeting of one’s own psychological needs, and mentions autonomy, competence, and affiliation as the decisive factors. [20,21,22]. According to the basic principles of SDT, motivation itself appears at the global, contextual, and situational levels. Our research focuses on the situational level—the reaction to an immediate experience, to something which is happening now and here. The questionnaire is commonly translated into narrative languages and shows high construct validity [23,24]. For our purpose, the questionnaire was translated into Czech from English. The situational motivation appearing after the intervention variable being involved in Physical Education was measured through the SIMS questionnaire also by, e.g., Østerlie [25].

The questionnaire focuses on four sub-scales of motivation.

(1)

Intrinsic motivation—pleasure and satisfaction resulting from an activity

(2)

Identified regulation—a free choice of a given activity

(3)

External regulation—reward for the activity/avoidance of punishment

(4)

Amotivation—a complete disinterest in the activity

The data were obtained through using an online version of the questionnaire that was created in the Google Forms environment. Processing was performed through using the NCSS programme for statistical analysis and applying the cluster analysis method K-Means. This method was chosen with regard to the objective of the work. The cluster analysis segments the resulting data into clusters, which can be considered as subsets of the elements that are as similar as possible to each other. Conversely, each additional cluster must be made up of the elements that are as different as possible from the elements of another cluster [26].

Thus, a cluster refers to the elements that are aggregated together on the basis of certain similarities. K-Means works with data averages, therefore, it looks for the cluster cores. Such a core can be real or imaginary—it represents the centre of the cluster [27]. Within the cluster analysis, two, three, four, and five clusters were calculated through the statistical program. To decide on the optimal number of clusters, we followed the methodology of Yuan and Yang [28], detecting an even spread of pupils, and we studied the dendrogram.

3. Results

The following findings relate to the data obtained from experimental group.

Table 1. Pretest-testing of SIMS; experimental group.

Variable	Mean	Standard Deviation	Min	Max	Range	Median	Mode
E Intrinsic motivation	22.1	5.62	4	28	24	23	28
E Identified regulation	22.9	4.40	6	28	22	24	28
E External regulation	17.1	4.80	4	27	23	17	16
E Amotivation	11.9	4.79	4	25	21	12	10

and

Table 2. Pretest-testing of Unifittest 6-60; experimental group.

Variable	Mean	Standard Deviation	Min	Max	Range	Median	Mode
E BEEP	35.3	14.8	13	79	66	33	29
E Repetitive sit-up	35.4	10.18	5	59	54	36	30
E Standing long jump	168.6	32.35	110	250	140	170	160
E Shuttle run 4 × 10 m	12.6	1.24	10.26	16.26	6.0	12.36	12.36

present the results of the SIMS and Unifittest 6-60 tests of the experimental (E) group.

Three clusters was the optimal result based on the standardized Unifittest 6-60 test, measuring the pupils’ motor skills, on the SIMS test, measuring the situational motivation in Physical Education classes, and on their subsequent processing through the K-Means cluster-analysis method (the cluster analysis was calculated for two, three, four, and five clusters). These three clusters refer to the typical groups of the students of the experimental group, who were involved in using of ICT and specific mobile applications.

Unifittest 6-60

Table 3. Unifittest 6-60; clustering of the experimental group on the basis of the motor performances in the post-test.

Motor Test	Cluster 1	Cluster 2	Cluster 3
Standing long jump (cm)	192.69	149.67	161.02
Sit-ups (repetitions per minute)	45.28	31.22	37.76
Beep test (the number of beeps)	46.88	22.05	29.38
Shuttle run (s)	11.75	13.79	13.13

illustrates the average results of the four test items of the Unifittest 6-60 test, measured for the experimental group.

SIMS Questionnaire

Table 4. Results revealed by the SIMS questionnaire and the resulting clustering of the experimental group.

Motivational Subscale	Cluster 1	Cluster 2	Cluster 3
Intrinsic motivation	23.26	24.42	14.38
Identified regulation	23.47	24.54	15.09
External regulation	17.04	15.94	16.18
Amotivation	12.99	11.28	14.56

illustrates the average results of the individual subscales of the situational motivation, which were revealed on the basis of the SIMS questionnaire distributed to the experimental group.

Based on statistical analysis, three clusters were identified.

The individual clusters are characterized by their average results in the Unifittest 6-60 test and by their answers given in the SIMS questionnaire, as illustrated by Figure 1.

Remark: Referring to the results reached in the standing long jump (Unifittest 6-60; T1), for the reason of better readability of the graph, centimetres were transferred into decimetres.

Cluster 1 is formed by 47 pupils (out of the total number of 118); the number of boys is 29, and the number of girls is 18. Concerning the development of their motor skills, these are the pupils who show the highest average scores in all four items of the Unifittest 6-60 test (T1 = 192.69 cm; T2 = 45.28 sit-ups/min, T3 = 46.88 repetitions, T4 = 11.75 s). The SIMS test results showed mean values in intrinsic motivation (IM = 23.26), identified regulation (IR = 23.47), and amotivation (A = 12.99). It is necessary to claim that these average values are really high. Numerous pupils, thus, show increased intrinsic motivation (pleasure resulting from an activity), and, simultaneously, appreciate the existing possibility to choose the way of learning new skills, which was enabled by this way of teaching (identified regulation IR = 23.47). This cluster also included several girls who do not have a positive approach towards usual Physical Education and whose performances are often below average. After the intervention, however, they performed very well and their amotivation for the subject reduced. Simultaneously, the pupils belonging to Cluster 1 show the highest value of the external regulation item (17.04).

Cluster 2 consists of the 51 pupils of the experimental group, out of whom there are 32 boys and 19 girls. This group showed worse results in all the motor tests of the Unifittest 6-60 than the other clusters (T1 = 149.67 cm, T2 = 31.22 sit-ups, T3 = 22.05 repetitions, T4 = 13.79 s). This is very interesting because, simultaneously, these pupils showed the highest intrinsic motivation (IM = 24.42) and appreciated this way of training the most, out of all the groups (IR = 24.54). This reality is also illustrated by the lowest score in the external regulation item (ER = 15.94)—these pupils ignore the impact of their performances, due to the traditional way of training and assessment to which they are normally accustomed. In the amotivation item, this cluster also reached the lowest scores of all the clusters (A = 11.28), which means that the pupils’ interest in Physical Education increased.

Cluster 3 consists of the total number of 21 pupils of the experimental group, out of whom there are 10 boys and 11 girls. The results of all partial motor tests within the Unifittest 6-60 reached neither the highest nor the lowest values (T1 = 161.02 cm, T2 = 37.76 repetitions, T3 = 29.38 repetitions, T4 = 13.13 s). On the contrary, we noticed a low internal motivation

(IM = 14. 38) for these pupils for modified Physical Education, and, simultaneously, these pupils did not enjoy the existing possibility to choose a style of learning new skills (IR = 15.09). This was also confirmed by the amotivation scores (A = 14.56). Disinterest in this way of teaching was the highest of all groups. The item of external regulation reached a high score (ER = 16.18), so it can be claimed that these pupils “persevered” through this way of teaching only because of the teacher or due to being afraid of bad results. This is also confirmed by the scores reached in the motor test, which could be expected to be worse due to the other motivational subscales.

4. Discussion

Due to the unique methodology of this study, which tries to classify the groups of the pupils on the basis of their results reached after the intervention through mobile phones during the process of Physical Education, the results referring to the motor performances and motivation (including their subscales) of the pupils participating in the research can hardly be compared with the findings obtained from the previously mentioned studies.

The performances given in these modified Physical Education classes were often motivated by the relationship with and respect for the teacher or by an imaginary reward and punishment normally received in such classes within Cluster 1. The teacher is, thus, a certain limit and they indirectly influence the results. On the other hand, this cluster consisted of a large number of boys who like ICT and attend optional classes of informatics. Their performances in normal Physical Education classes are rather average. This cluster suggests that once digital devices are used during classes, the motivation increases, as described within the research by Papastergiou et al. [4].

The girls from Cluster 2 normally give average performances, and although they enjoyed the classes and their motivation developed positively, their motor performances still did not increase. The same thing happened in case of most boys, who usually have a rather neutral approach to Physical Education. There appeared a surprising development in the results of motor skills of four boys whose motor skills are normally above average and who represent their school in sports competitions. Their relationship to ICT is very positive, and the new way of teaching appealed to them, but at the end of the experiment their performances were negatively affected. These boys often mentioned other applications that they had found themselves and they often said “I would like to practise like this all the time”. This points to the conclusions by Shin, Kim, and Lee [7], who highlighted that long-term goals can only be met if well-thought-out strategies that ensure ultimate effectiveness are implemented.

Cluster 3 included pupils who generally do not have a positive approach to Physical Education, i.e., boys and girls who often avoid Physical Education. Simultaneously, however, Cluster 3 also included girls whose physical activities are above average, who like Physical Education, and who also often do sports in their spare time. During all of the experiment, they had trouble getting along with the other members of the group when the teacher was not present. These girls are very competitive, though at the time of the experiment they did not excel. They also often challenged the application of ICT in school Physical Education. In their opinion, they should “move rather than be on a cell phone”. The girls also emphasized the fact that their role model should be the teacher, not the mobile phone or the computer, which is in line with a study conducted by Muntaner-Mas et al. [29], who concluded that the physical tasks coming via applications were not as attractive as face-to-face interviews with a coach.

The results presented in this study are unique. Performed comparisons relate to pupils within experimental group. With this respect, we try to provide some contrasts with the studies previously mentioned. We can agree with the findings made by Depper and Howe [10], who confirmed the existence of possibilities to positively influence the lifestyle (diet, physical activities) of British female adolescents aged 13–16 through using ICT devices, including mobile phones, in their spare time. However, we cannot fully agree with the negative opinion concerning the limitation of social contacts during the process of using the devices, because the pupils used the applications together during the classes, and, on the contrary, they were forced to cooperate with each other. The teacher receded into the background, and the classes gained a completely new dimension. The SIMS questionnaire results showed that this fact was positively perceived by Cluster 1 and Cluster 2. Simultaneously, Cluster 1 and Cluster 2 also included pupils who usually enjoy Physical Education and whose normal performances are average to above average. However, pupils who are below average in classical Physical Education classes newly joined these pupils. Due to the fact that ICT is popular with them, they moved up to the groups of the most physically efficient pupils. To a certain extent, this was also due to the fact that the teacher introduced/mediated the application to them, and they then re-played it at home on their devices. Our findings can also confirm the results presented by Steinberk et al. [29], who researched the process of conveying the learning contents of various school subjects through ICT (Physical Education was included); the key factor for them was the fact that the students could use their own device—a mobile phone (BYOD: bring your own device). The agreement can be also found in the sphere of the perception of teaching-students (Cluster 1, Cluster 2) like the possibility of choosing a preferred way (IR). Some pupils had objections to the absence of feedback given by the teacher, but they still enjoyed the classes. We fully agree with, and confirm the results as similar to, those presented by Legrain et al. [13], who also performed a pedagogical experiment when using ICT in teaching gymnastics during school Physical Education. If learners’ autonomy is supported, their internal needs are satisfied and their internal motivation for the subject is then higher. Legrain [13] also mentions the increasing digital literacy of the participants, who, thanks to appropriate ICT tools, can become more independent, which further motivates them for self-education.

However, the negative acceptance of this way of training can also be significantly impacted by the general lack of interest in Physical Education itself as well as by relationships in the group, which is claimed by Zhu and Dragon [17]. To a certain extent, these findings also correspond to the results reached by the Cluster 3 pupils. These pupils show a general lack of interest in Physical Education, or they did not want to practise with ICT tools, even though some of them reach above-average results in normal classes. The main reason was the absence of the classical structure of the lesson, and the fact that the role of the teacher was different from the role the learners were used to.

5. Conclusions

Appropriately chosen mobile applications can help to increase motivation for the subject being taught. We are aware that our representative group consists of pupils from only one elementary school, thus, it is not our intention to make general statements to be applied to the whole population. Nonetheless, the results of this research indicate that mobile applications have a great potential to increase motivation for school Physical Education. Each student perceives the teaching process differently. Situational motivation greatly affects long-term motivation and the value system. We are aware of the limits of the submitted research, namely the small sample size of the respondents and the implementation of the research in only one school. In the future, therefore, it would be appropriate to apply this method of teaching in a higher number of schools and classes and to find out more about the possibility of influencing the motivation of students for physical education and for physical activities in general through mobile applications.

Consequently, these results could help to update the methodology of school Physical Education, including the teacher’s approach and promoting certain autonomy of pupils in classes. At the same time, the change in the approach towards usage of ICT during PE has to happen at the level of higher education where future teachers get their training. As part of the undergraduate training of pre-service teachers of PE and primary teachers (who also teach PE), it is required by Czech education curricular documents to use digital technology and support digital competences of pupils. It is believed that ICT is engaging and beneficial for pupils’ academic performance. Thus, pre-service teachers need to be trained to involve ICT in classes.

The findings of this research imply that ICT proves to be beneficial when we perceive the experimental group as a whole, however, cluster analysis reveals that there is a group of pupils who performed high (as usual, since they are already fond of sport) but did not become engaged by ICT, so eventually they rejected it. Therefore, there are new implications for pre-service teacher training of PE teachers relating to usage of ICT. This will be considered specifically in the subject of the didactics of PE for primary and lower-secondary pre-service teachers in the Czech education environment.

To conclude, ICT can be a useful tool to support physical activities in the long-term, however, educators should be aware that there may be groups of pupils who require different approaches in education. It is, thus, the task of higher-education institutions to reflect on this and train future teachers according to new, evidence-based knowledge. PE should promote a healthy lifestyle and should be an attractive subject for all pupils, motivating them to also move outside of school.