Next Article in Journal
Insight in HIV Integration Site Selection Provides a Block-and-Lock Strategy for a Functional Cure of HIV Infection
Next Article in Special Issue
Wildlife Management Practices Associated with Pathogen Exposure in Non-Native Wild Pigs in Florida, U.S.
Previous Article in Journal
Interactions between Bacteriophage, Bacteria, and the Mammalian Immune System
Previous Article in Special Issue
One Health (r)Evolution: Learning from the Past to Build a New Future
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Viruses
Volume 11
Issue 1
10.3390/v11010011
viruses-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Islands as Hotspots for Emerging Mosquito-Borne Viruses: A One-Health Perspective

by
Carla Mavian
1,2,*,
Melissa Dulcey
2,3,†,
Olga Munoz
2,3,4,†,
Marco Salemi
1,2,
Amy Y. Vittor
2,5,‡ and
Ilaria Capua
2,4,‡
1
Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
2
Emerging Pathogens Institute University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
3
Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
4
One Health Center of Excellence, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
5
Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Medicine, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
‡
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Viruses 2019, 11(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/v11010011
Received: 8 November 2018 / Revised: 18 December 2018 / Accepted: 18 December 2018 / Published: 25 December 2018
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zoonotic and Vectorborne Viral Infections: Applying the One Health Vision—from Challenges to Solutions)
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
During the past ten years, an increasing number of arbovirus outbreaks have affected tropical islands worldwide. We examined the available literature in peer-reviewed journals, from the second half of the 20th century until 2018, with the aim of gathering an overall picture of the emergence of arboviruses in these islands. In addition, we included information on environmental and social drivers specific to island setting that can facilitate the emergence of outbreaks. Within the context of the One Health approach, our review highlights how the emergence of arboviruses in tropical islands is linked to the complex interplay between their unique ecological settings and to the recent changes in local and global sociodemographic patterns. We also advocate for greater coordination between stakeholders in developing novel prevention and mitigation approaches for an intractable problem.

1. Introduction

The term “arbovirus” (arthropod-borne virus) describes viruses transmitted by blood-feeding arthropods [1]. Most arboviruses are maintained in complex sylvatic cycles involving forest-dwelling mosquitoes and vertebrates that serve as reservoirs or amplification hosts, such as birds, small mammals and non-human primates [1]. Spillover from these sylvatic cycles occurs occasionally to cause disease in humans, and subsequent viral adaptation can then give rise to urban or epidemic cycles [2,3].
In our review, we identify drivers of arboviral emergence specific to island settings. As such, we focus on the two most important arboviral genera in our regions of interest (genus Alphavirus, family Togaviridae and genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae), transmitted by Aedes spp. and Culex spp. mosquitoes.
Over the last decade, an increasing number of arboviral outbreaks has been registered, rapidly spreading throughout the tropics and subtropics upon importation into these areas from endemic regions of Africa and South-East Asia [4,5,6]. In 2005, outbreaks of chikungunya virus (CHIKV) were registered in the Indian Ocean islands [7], and infections were associated with not only a febrile illness with protracted joint pain, but also neurological complications, fetal infections and a rise in overall mortality rates [8,9,10]. This viral strain of East, Central and South African (ECSA) lineage was later discovered to have undergone a key point mutation leading to adaptation of the virus to Aedes albopictus [11], a mosquito vector that had previously become established on many Indian Ocean islands. This outbreak spread to India and South-East Asia in 2006, causing explosive outbreaks [12]. In 2011, a different CHIKV strain (of Asian lineage) was first detected in the Pacific Ocean, on the island of New Caledonia [12]. Following its spread to French Polynesia, CHIKV was detected in 2013 in Saint Martin, marking the first recorded autochthonous transmission of CHIKV in the Americas [13]. Shortly thereafter, CHIKV was reported in more than 40 other countries in the Caribbean and the Americas [7].
Zika virus (ZIKV) probably emerged centuries ago from Africa into South-East Asia [14]. Similar to the second wave of CHIKV outbreaks, the recent ZIKV pandemic ensued following the spread of an Asian ZIKV strain into the Oceania and then the Americas [14]. Prior to its appearance in the Pacific and the Americas, Zika virus (ZIKV) infections were sporadic and caused only mild symptoms [15,16]. However, well into the epidemic in Brazil in 2015, it became apparent that ZIKV infection could lead to microcephaly, other congenital malformations, and Guillain-Barré syndrome. By 2016, ZIKV was widely distributed in the Americas and the Caribbean islands constituting yet another arboviral public health concern [17]. The dispersal pattern of the recent explosive epidemic waves of CHIKV and ZIKV [13,18], as well as earlier waves of dengue outbreaks [19], have drawn attention to islands as potential hubs for arboviral emergence, facilitating dispersal to the mainland and fueling of global epidemics [5,6,20,21]. Recent altered ecologic conditions, due to changes in global climate (increasing temperatures and rainfall) and human behavior (global commerce and movement, urbanization) already represent drivers of expansion for arboviruses. Increased vector density and distribution, due to vector adaptation to residential environment and unsuccessful or unsustainable vector control programs, have intensified the potential of new arboviruses to emerge from enzootic cycles and spread to new geographic areas with establishment of new endemic cycles both in humans and animal reservoirs [4,21]. These drivers may be exacerbated in islands by unique or peculiar circumstances present on these small landmasses. Tropical oceanic islands have a variety of commonalities related to limited access to public health resources, and intense movement of human and goods along commercial and cruise ship routes. Such islands host potential vectors for arthropod-borne viruses to which autochthonous populations may be naive. In addition, islands are particularly vulnerable to natural disasters (i.e., hurricanes, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions) and their consequences can be completely disruptive, transformational and long lasting, further contributing to the environment’s capacity for arboviral transmission and maintenance [6,22]. These conditions have set the stage for the global dispersal of dengue (DENV), CHIKV, and recently ZIKV, and may promote novel, unknown and unexpected arboviral threats to public health.
In this review, we sought information on the role of Indian Ocean-, Pacific- and Caribbean islands as arboviral hotspots. We performed an extensive survey of past and current literature to gather information on emergence of arboviruses on islands, and investigated how the socioeconomic and climatic drivers affect insular host–vector–pathogen dynamics. Finally, we draw attention to possible complementary public health strategies that can be implemented in order to enhance control of unexpected arboviral emergence and spread.

2. Materials and Methods

We reviewed emergence of mosquito-borne viruses on islands belonging to three different geographic areas: the Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Caribbean. A full list of small islands nations and archipelagos is provided in Table 1. We searched from the 1960s to date (as of June 2018) for first reports (serology or viral detection in human, non-human or vector) of mosquito-borne arboviruses by island nation or archipelago. We searched for the string arbovir*, as well as individual arboviral terms (zika, chikungunya, dengue, Rift Valley fever, Ross River) followed by the name of the island or archipelago in PubMed and ProMED databases. The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and World Health Organization (WHO) webpages were utilized to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of virus distribution. The inclusion criterion for the articles and websites was any material published after and including 1960 and published in English, French or Spanish. It is important to take into account that the ProMED database was established only in 1994. As we reported only the first report of an arbovirus in an island, the literature search for that arbovirus-island pair ended once the first record was found. Different dengue serotypes are distinguished when possible, but recurrences of previously noted virus or dengue serotypes are not reflected in our search. Table 1 summarizes these first reports of specific arboviral presence based on human case reports, surveillance reports, serological studies in humans, as well as epidemiological studies in vectors and other animal hosts.
We collected climate, economic, and travel data searching in Pubmed and Google, using as strings for our search “arbovirus”, as well as individual arboviral terms (zika, chikungunya, dengue, Rift Valley fever, Ross River), followed by “island” and specific area (Pacific, Indian, Caribbean) and by: climate, climate change, socio-economics, sustainability, vector distribution, travel, or One-Health.

3. Results

3.1. Indian Ocean Islands

It is likely that waves of arboviral epidemics have occurred on these islands over centuries [23]. DENV (genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae), Rift Valley Fever (RFV; genus Phenuiviridae, family Phlebovirus), CHIKV (genus Alphavirus, family Togaviridae) have been detected in the Indian Ocean Islands, and serological studies provide further evidence for Sindbis virus (SINV), Kyasanur Forest disease (KFD; genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae), Japanese encephalitis (JEV; genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae), West Nile virus (WNV; genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae), Langat virus (LGTV; genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae) circulation (Table 1).
The first clinically diagnosed documentation of in the Indian Ocean Islands occurred during a DENV fever outbreak with 59 cases in Comoros in 1943 [24]. DENV serotype 2 (DENV-2) was reported for the first time in the Seychelles and Reunion in 1977 [25,26]. DENV was reported again in 2004-2005 [27], with PCR-confirmed DENV-1 and 3, co-circulating with CHIKV [23]. DENV-1 emerged in the Seychelles in 2016 [28]. Although there was no record of laboratory-confirmed cases in Mauritius during the 1977–1978 DENV-2 epidemic, an epidemiologic study conducted in 1994 suggested that DENV was circulating in the island [29,30]. DENV was first reported in the Maldives in 1979, and has caused sporadic outbreaks until it became endemic in 2004 [31]. In 2011, DENV-1 was found to responsible for the largest epidemic in Malé and other islands of the Maldives [32]. In the eastern Indian Ocean, a serological survey realized between 1988–1989 among the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands in India found evidence of DENV-2, together with high prevalence of the tick-borne KFD, as well as of other arboviruses such CHIKV, JEV, WNV, LGTV [33]. Since its first documentation on these islands [33], DENV was not reported again until 2009-2010 (co-circulation of DENV-1 and DENV-2) [34]. DENV-3 was then identified for the first time in 2013 in Port Blair, the capital of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands [35].
RVF appeared in the Indian Ocean in 2004 in livestock on the island of Mayotte [36]. Human cases of RVF were reported in 2007–2008, and again later in 2011 (Table 1). Possible introduction of RVF in the Comoros Islands from Africa occurred in August 2007 when autochthonous RVF transmission in humans was reported for the first time on the island of Grande Comore, with subsequent spread to other islands including Mayotte [37].
The earliest reports of CHIKV are from a dengue epidemic surveillance effort in 1977 in the Seychelles that led to the first evidence of CHIKV and Sindbis (SINV) in the Indian Ocean [38]. Human sera were found to be positive for monotypic neutralizing antibodies to CHIKV (8% of 231 patients sampled) and SINV (7% of 231 patients sampled) [38]. Another serological survey in 1988 found presence of CHIKV in the Andaman and Nicobar islands [33]. Circulation of CHIKV went mostly unnoticed in the Indian Ocean until 2005, when CHIKV caused the explosive outbreak in Reunion Island with 255,000 cases reported between March 2005 and April 2006 (Table 1) [39,40]. The outbreak then spread to Mayotte, Mauritius, the Seychelles, and Madagascar [40]. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the circulating CHIKV constituted a new lineage (dubbed the Indian Ocean lineage, a descendant of the East, Central, South African (ECSA) clade) [40]. A hallmark of this epidemic was the A226V mutation that allowed for a higher replication and dissemination rate in the Aedes albopictus mosquito, resulting in enhanced transmission efficiency [11]. Whereas CHIKV was associated previously with the urban Ae. aegypti mosquito (possibly aided by Ae. albopictus) in Asian countries, the 2005 outbreak was mainly transmitted by Ae. albopictus. This increased the likelihood of CHIKV-infected travelers giving rise to autochthonous transmission upon their return home, since Ae. albopictus vectors are indigenous in many areas of Europe and the Americas [11,40].

3.2. Pacific Ocean Islands

Six years after the outbreak in Reunion, CHIKV emerged in the Pacific Ocean in New Caledonia in 2011 [20] (Table 1). Before this outbreak, local transmission of the virus had not been seen in the region [20]. Outbreaks followed in Melanesia in 2012 and Micronesia in 2013. By 2014, CHIKV was spreading through American Samoa, French Polynesia, Samoa, Tokelau, and Tonga [41].
DENV is the most widespread virus throughout the Pacific, with all four DENV serotypes found in the Pacific area (Table 1). Most islands have co-circulation of two serotypes (commonly DENV-1 with one of the other serotypes), but New Caledonia has reported co-circulation of all serotypes (Table 1). Major outbreaks of DENV-1 across the Pacific are believed to have commenced following an index outbreak in Palau in 2000 [42]. DENV in the Pacific was recorded in Hawaii in 2001 when autochthonous DENV-1 infections were linked to travelers returning from Tahiti, French Polynesia [43]. Phylogenetic analyses suggested association of the Hawaiian strains with contemporaneous Polynesian strains [43]. Due to the different feeding behavior of Ae. albopictus as compared to Ae. aegypti, the 2001–2002 DENV-1 outbreak in Hawaii was more limited in number of cases as compared to the one that occurred at the same time in the Society Islands, where Ae. aegypti was responsible [43]. Emergence of new endemic lineages of DENV 1-3 in Papua New Guinea has been reported [44] as well as re-emergence of DENV-2 in the Solomon Islands in 2016 [44].
Despite some evidence of Ross River virus (RRV; genus Alphavirus, family Togaviridae; first isolated in 1959 in Australia [45]) seroprevalence in the mid-1960s in the Solomon Islands, RRV was not appreciated in the Pacific Islands until the 1979–1980 epidemic involving half a million cases [46,47,48]. During this time, the literature mentions outbreaks occurring in American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Fiji, New Caledonia, as well as Wallis and Futuna (Table 1). Subsequently, a serological study in 2011–2013 in French Polynesia detected RRV IgG in a third of blood donors, suggesting that there had been silent circulation of RRV [49].
The most recent arbovirus to emerge in the Pacific islands was ZIKV (genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae). Between 1963 and 1983, ZIKV was present in equatorial Asia, including Indonesia and Malaysia [18]. In 2007, the first large ZIKV outbreak occurred in Yap State, Micronesia, infecting approximately 73% of Yap residents [50]. The high incidence recorded during the ZIKV outbreak in Yap Island suggests a lack of immunity in this population. Additional ZIKV outbreaks occurred in French Polynesia in 2013, shortly followed by New Caledonia, the Cook Islands, and Easter Island in 2014 and later Fiji, Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Samoa, American Samoa, Tonga and the Marshall Islands (2015–2016) (Table 1).

3.3. Caribbean Islands

According to historical accounts, yellow fever virus (YFV; genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae) was introduced into the New World from Africa through the Caribbean islands of Barbados and Guadeloupe in 1647 in association with the African slave trade [4], although the disease may have been in Haiti as early as 1495 [51]. The islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe in 1635 witnessed the first suspected dengue-like epidemic reported in the New World [52,53]. It was only later, during a large dengue epidemic in 1827–1828 that originated in the Virgin Islands, then spread to Cuba and Jamaica [54,55], that the disease was named Dunga [55]. DENV-2 was first isolated in 1953 in Trinidad and Tobago [56,57]. In 1947, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) initiated a campaign to eradicate Ae. aegypti [58]. Despite initial success, the Ae. aegypti eradication campaign eventually failed, leading to the reappearance of dengue serotypes in the Caribbean in the 1970s. DENV-3 spread through the Caribbean in the epidemic of 1963–1964 [59]. DENV-1 appeared in Jamaica in 1977 [60], and DENV-4 first reappeared in 1981, possibly originating from the Pacific Islands [56]. This year was also marked the first detection of a dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) case in the Americas, which occurred in Cuba [61] (Table 1).
In 1969 an outbreak of eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV; genus Alphavirus, family Togaviridae) was registered in Cuba [62], however it was only the 1977 virologic and serological survey of wild vertebrates that demonstrated that birds were the main hosts of EEEV in forest and water–litoral regions of various provinces of Cuba [63]. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV; genus Alphavirus, family Togaviridae) was isolated from Trinidad and Tobago between the 50s and 60s [64]. Around the same time, Mayaro virus (MAYV; genus Alphavirus, family Togaviridae) was first isolated in Trinidad (1954) [65]. It was not until 2014 that MAYV was recorded again in the Caribbean, in Haiti [66]. One year after its re-emergence, a new recombinant form of the virus was isolated in Haiti [67,68] (Table 1). In Trinidad, between 1955 and 1959 the viruses Oropuche virus (OROV), Bushbush virus (BSBV), Ieri virus (IERIV), Lukuni virus (LUKV), belonging to the genus Peribunyaviridae, family Orthobunyavirus, were found in mosquitoes [69,70], as well as St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) was detected in birds and mosquitoes [71,72]. Low-level circulation of and Madariaga virus (formerly known as South American EEEV), together with VEEV, was found from samples collected from seropositive horses in Trinidad between 2006–2009 [73].
Three cases of Ilheus virus (ILHV) were registered in Trinidad in 1962, from a city resident with severe febrile illness, and two mosquito catchers working in the forests of the island of which only one reported mild febrile illness [74]. Restan virus (RESV) was also found in Trinidad in 1965 in mosquitoes [75]. Mucambo virus (MUCV) was found in mosquitoes and mammals in 2007 [64].
The first human WNV case in the Caribbean was detected in 2001 in the Cayman Islands, probably having reached the island via migratory birds [76]. Until now, only nine additional human cases have been detected in the region (Table 1). In 2004 WNV was reported in horses and birds in Trinidad [77].
CHIKV was first detected in Saint Martin in December 2013 [78], and although this is considered the first case of CHIKV in the Americas [79], it is possible that a previous outbreak had occurred (Table 1). Historical records of the 1827–1828 DENV epidemic suggest that this epidemic might have been erroneously attributed to DENV, as the clinical characteristics were more similar to disease seen with CHIKV infections. [80]. Between the end of 2013 and throughout 2014, the virus was detected in virtually every Caribbean country. Interestingly, phylogenetic analysis indicates that the strain responsible for the CHIKV outbreak in French Polynesia in 2014 originated from a traveler returning from Guadeloupe in the Caribbean [41]. These analyses have also demonstrated that the Indian Ocean CHIKV outbreaks were due to CHIKV of the East/Central/South African (ECSA) lineage, while the Pacific Island and Caribbean epidemics were attributed to CHIKV belonging to the Asian lineage [81].
The most recent arbovirus to have emerged in the region is ZIKV, with the first case detected in Puerto Rico in a man with onset of symptoms beginning on November 23, 2015. Between the end of 2015 and throughout 2016, similarly to CHIKV, ZIKV spread in less than one year to every Caribbean country (Table 1). The establishment of autochthonous infections in the Caribbean fueled further exportation of the virus to Europe [82] and the US [83].

3.4. One-Health Perspective

The One-Health perspective integrates social, economic, biomedical and ecological fields of study with the community of policymakers and practitioners working on the ground to have the most impact. In this section, we focused on One-Health factors that have contributed to the persistence and spread of arboviral outbreaks in the context of insular tropical environments. We particularly investigated socio-economic determinants, climatic conditions, human migration and trade as potential drivers for arboviral emergence in islands, and their impact on host-vector-pathogen dynamics.

3.4.1. Socio-Economic Drivers

Poverty is one of the main drivers for arboviral infections [84]. Indeed, ZIKV [85], DENV [86] and CHIKV [87] outbreaks have been linked to populations with vulnerable socioeconomic status. Poverty may lead to inadequate vector control and prevention programs, suboptimal healthcare infrastructure, and the creation of environmental conditions that promote mosquito breeding [84].
In 1992, the United Nations recognized Small Island Developing States (SIDS) as a specific group of developing countries [88,89]. At present, 57 countries from the Caribbean, the Pacific, the African and Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean, and South China Sea, have been designated as such [88]. SIDS are joined by similar opportunities but especially by challenges for attaining sustainable development. These include limited resources, remoteness, a great reliance on international trade, fragile environments, small but growing populations, transportation and energy costs, and difficulties in creating economies of scale [90,91,92].
Another layer of complexity comes from the differences in sovereignty between the various islands and archipelagos. For example, within the Caribbean, seventeen islands are territories of more economically developed countries (with differing status within the sovereign country), and 13 are independent states. These differences can influence the type and quantity of help and attention they receive, as well as the coordination of efforts in these island states.
Regarding economic challenges, Caribbean independent states have expressed the willingness to integrate into the global market. Nonetheless, given their small size and less developed economic and export structure, it is recognized that they might need special treatment [93].
SIDS face further challenges in financing public administration and infrastructure, due to the disproportionate expenses these entail given the small size of their economies [90]. In addition to these obstacles, SIDS also encounter the many burdens that other developing countries experience, such as disorganized urbanization coupled with non- or under-developed water distribution systems and waste management [94]. The absence or deficiency of water and waste systems is associated with a rise in the use of water storage containers, which in turn facilitate the proliferation of Aedes mosquitoes [94]. Further socio-economic factors related to poverty that affect the distribution of Aedes sp., are air-conditioning and housing quality [95].

3.4.2. Climatic Conditions and Climate Change

Climate has a profound impact on the spatiotemporal distribution of arthropods, the vector life cycle, arboviral dispersal patterns and evolution, and transmission efficiency from vector to host [96].
Oceanic regions are disproportionately affected by anthropogenic climate change and extreme weather events (e.g., hurricanes, cyclones and tsunamis) [97]. Areas of low elevation and coastal areas will experience some of the greatest consequences of severe weather events and sea level rise [98,99,100]. Natural catastrophes including hurricanes, cyclones and storm surge can wipe-out or severely alter areas of vegetation, and human dwellings on islands [100]. Sea level rise may result in the loss of large portions of land or complete submergence of islands. These elements have the ability to greatly impact the landscape and biodiversity of islands [101], which could also increase vector density. Due to their low elevation, islands such as the Maldives [102], the Marshall Islands [103], and Tuvalu [104,105] are currently considering resettlement as they deal with the effects of climate change, including sea level rise, high tides and frequent storms. These situations result in the movement of people and animals, resulting in opportunities for increased human, host and vector exposure and interactions.
Some factors believed to be impacted by climate change and linked to alterations in vector-borne diseases include but are not limited to temperature, precipitation, flooding, daylight, wind, and humidity [106]. Naturally, these types of changes would alter the host and vector population dynamics and ecology, which could lead to disease emergence. Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus exhibit great ecological plasticity and potential for spread to new settings, allowing these mosquitoes to adapt to new environmental conditions, feeding behaviors, and breeding sites [107,108]. For example, extraordinary high temperatures recorded at Ae. aegypti breeding sites in Trinidad caused water evaporation and mortality of immature stages, leading the mosquito to establish new breeding sites in underground drains and septic tanks without affecting the fitness of the vector [109]. Increased availability of brackish water due to climate change and natural disasters could increase available breeding sites for vectors that are able to proliferate in salt-water pools. Larval development of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus in peri-urban brackish water was observed in Sri Lanka [110], and in the Andaman Islands, India in 2004, following a tsunami which resulted in increased breeding sites for Anopheles sundaicus [111]. These examples stress the importance of expanding existing guidelines on dengue control [112] to include brackish water habitats and underground breeding sites of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus.
Changes in rainfall and extreme weather conditions are not specific to islands alone. However, smaller landmasses (specifically small islands) can be extremely susceptible to changes in precipitation due to a lack of infrastructure to manage changes in water flux [113]. This can give rise to open water sources for mosquitoes to proliferate. On the other hand, islands that experience drought and do not have infrastructure for water storage may rely on household water storage containers, thereby also increasing mosquito-breeding sites [94].
Severe storms with high winds such as hurricanes also have the ability to displace and move birds far outside their normal ranges [114]. As islands tend to have limited extension of land areas, birds that are caught and survive through these winds are likely to end up on other lands masses, taking with them the pathogens they carry and the possible introduction of new diseases. For example, the long-distance movement of birds, including their displacement through tropical storms, has been discussed as a possible mechanism for the spread of WNV to the Western Hemisphere [115]. Mosquitoes may also experience a similar phenomenon. Although it is possible for strong winds to decrease activity of mosquitoes, it also has the ability to move and disseminate vectors and the diseases they carry [116]. This is especially true for more closely located landmasses and is exemplified by the possible introduction of Japanese encephalitis from Papua New Guinea to Australia, by way of islands through the Torres Strait [117].
Recent history emphasizes how hurricanes are a prime example of how islands are especially vulnerable to natural disasters. When hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico in September of 2017, the island was left with around $90bn worth of damage, and households went without electricity for an average of 84 days and without water for an average of 64 days [118].

3.4.3. Man-Related Activities Influencing Vector Dynamics

Man-related activities are probably one of the most important drivers that can act as amplifiers of infection. Over the centuries, geographic distribution of arboviruses and their vectors has been shaped by mobility of people and goods. Due to the progressive desertification of the Sahara Desert 4000–6000 years ago, human migration initiated the process of domestication of Ae. aegypti [119,120], thus increasing the burden of arboviral diseases. Another example where human movement played an important role in the emergence and movement of an arbovirus was the re-location of around 50,000 Haitians to the US [121] and migration of 4000 to 6000 Haitians across the Amazon [122] after the 2010 earthquake in Haiti. It has been proposed that this extraordinary human migration elicited the emergence of a new recombinant genotype of MAYV in Brazil, later exported to Haiti [68]. Ecological changes due to human land use is often implicated in sylvatic spillover events into the human population: deforestation due to encroachment of human settlements and agriculture increases human exposure to sylvatic vectors, leading eventually to the adaptation of the virus–mosquito–human cycle with further spread to peri-urban and urban settings [123]. Increasing urbanization is one of the main drivers for the expansion of Ae. aegypti, which is closely associated with human residential settings. Although Ae. albopictus was previously considered a rural or peri-urban vector [124,125,126], recent evidence of Ae. albopictus adaptation to urban life was found in urban settings in Guangzhou, China [127], and La Reunion where the vector was breeding in parks, residential gardens, and cemeteries [128].
Human trade has been an additional driver for displacement of vectors and pathogens [129]. During the 17th century, due to the implementation of freshwater storage systems in ships for long-distance travel [119] and the intense slave trade from Africa to the Caribbean after the establishment of the “Compagnie du Sénégal” [130], Ae. aegypti was exported from Africa to the French Antilles archipelago [120]. In the 1980s, maritime international trade of used tire shipments were important in the re-introductions of both Ae. aegypti in the Americas, but also for the dispersal of Ae. albopictus [131,132]. Dispersal of Ae. albopictus into the Pacific and Indian Ocean Islands started around the 17-18th centuries due to increased trade with Asia [133,134], and between 1800–1850, whaling and sandalwood commerce with China [135] led to first introductions of Ae. aegypti in New Caledonia, Fiji and Tonga [134]. Ae. aegypti’s infestation of the Pacific is an ongoing issue, as shown by the more recent colonization of the Isle of Pines (New Caledonia, Melanesia) in 2003 [134]. A recent study on seaports in the Philippines showed that cargo ship transportation is the main mode of dispersion of Ae. aegypti, and that movement of Ae. aegypti between cities is faster in highly-populated cities with large ports [136]. This study suggests that modern vector control techniques such as Wolbachia release may not be successful in such seaports due to continuous importation of new vector populations. Interestingly, the lack of Ae. aegypti in the Indian Ocean has protected this region from the ZIKV pandemic, as Ae. albopictus is not an efficient vector for the Asian ZIKV genotype [137].
The recent global spread of ZIKV [138,139] and CHIKV [140,141,142] highlighted the importance of a relatively new element that contributes significantly to epidemic spread, namely tourism. Modern international civil aviation allowed for a tenfold increase in global air travel over the last 40 years, drastically reshaping human interconnection [143] and facilitating spread of ZIKV in South, Central, and North America [85]. A recent study found a strong correlation between Caribbean cruise ship tourism and establishment of ZIKV in Florida. It is estimated that 2.4 million travelers arrived from the Caribbean into Miami via cruise ships between January and June 2016, accounting for around of 40% of the total traffic into Miami. The authors further estimate that during that period 60–70% of ZIKV-infected travelers had arrived to Florida from the Caribbean [83].

3.5. The Caribbean Hotspot

Due to their proximity, trade, and political relationships with the continental U.S., the Caribbean Islands facilitate arboviral spread into the U.S. At least six out of thirty Caribbean countries, such Bahamas, Haiti, Jamaica, Dominican Republic, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Trinidad and Tobago, export equal to or greater than 40% of their products to the U.S. [144].
Florida, which includes the most southern tip of the United States, can act as a portal of entry for pathogens and invasive species into the U.S. for several reasons. Florida is geographically part of the Caribbean hotspot, includes large metropolitan areas, such Orlando and Miami, that represent major tourist destinations, and the tropical climate in the central and southern parts of the State is similar to the climate in the Caribbean islands. Both areas allow for proliferation of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus. In addition to these, mosquito-borne viruses that have been found in Florida in the past decade include WNV, SLEV, EEEV, Everglades virus [145], Highlands J virus [146], and LaCrosse encephalitis virus (LACV) (Table S1).
In Florida, imported arboviruses tend to proliferate and generate autochthonous cases. WNV activity has been reported in humans as well as in horses and sentinel chicken from the Florida Panhandle to the Atlantic coast (Table S1). All four serotypes of dengue have been detected in the state and local transmissions have been reported in recent years (Table S1 and S2). [147]. The Florida Department of Health reported a total of 965 travel-associated ZIKV cases in 2016 [148], 195 cases in 2017 [149], and 66 cases through October 2018 [147]. Approximately 50–80% of the imported cases of DENV, CHIKV and ZIKV found in Florida through 2008–2018 were introduced from the Caribbean islands, mainly Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Cuba and Jamaica (Table S2).
This has urged the state of Florida to react over the last decade with mosquito-borne illness alerts and advisories being routinely in place for certain counties with high prevalence or risk of these pathogens, such as Orange, Miami-Dade and Collier counties, where large CHIKV, DENV and ZIKV outbreaks have occurred [147].

4. Discussion

4.1. Potential Emerging Arboviral Threats

In 2017, the opinion piece “Could the recent Zika epidemic have been predicted?” was published [150] in response to the explosive Zika epidemic rapidly burdening the Americas. The answer to this question was “no” given the knowledge at the time. However, the answer could have probably been “yes” (for the Americas) if more attention and research was spent on ZIKV after the initial outbreaks in the Pacific Ocean in 2013 [151]. Although the 2015–2016 Zika epidemic increased awareness, surveillance, diagnostic capacity and in-depth laboratory investigations, ideally preventive surveillance should be expanded to include the well-known pathogens, such as YFV, DENV, CHIKV, ZIKV, RRV and WNV, as well as less recognized ones, such as LACV, MAYV, SLEV, and VEEV. Previously neglected arboviruses such as Oropouche virus, MAYV, and MADV have been in the headlines recently, attracting more attention but funding appears to be a limiting factor. This recognition is likely due to the recent emergence of ZIKV, as well as ongoing globalization driving the geographic expansion of mosquito vectors. However, this list also highlights arboviruses that, as of yet, have not been observed in the Caribbean, nor in the Indian or Pacific Oceans. These pathogens include O’nyong nyong virus, Spondweni virus, Usutu virus, Rocio, Cacicapore virus, Aroa, Naranjal, Bussuquara, and Iguape viruses. These pathogens may not been circulating in these regions, or maybe not detected due to a lack of targeted surveillance in hosts or vectors. Having a clear epidemiological picture in islands is crucial in order to prevent and manage future epidemic crises. There is also a need to expand surveillance and reporting to countries that are connected to islands hotspots through political ties, or high volume of tourism or commerce. Sentinel countries where surveillance should be enhanced are Madagascar and East Africa for the Indian Ocean, and Malaysia and Australia for the Pacific region. For example, in Australia at least 75 arboviruses have been identified, of which several are associated with disease in humans (such Alfuy, Edge Hill, Gan Gan, Kokobera, Sindbis and Stratford viruses), yet not all of them are routinely tested [152]. For the Caribbean region, special attention should be focused on the Brazilian Amazon, where a total of 187 different species of arboviruses were identified between 1954–1998 by the enormous efforts of the Evandro Chagas Institute, and for which very little is known yet [153].

4.2. From Challenges to Solutions

In this review, we have focused on arboviral emergence events throughout the tropical island regions. However, reports found in the literature likely underestimate the actual number of emergence events and may not necessarily coincide in time with emergence. In many cases viruses may have been under-reported or under-detected, particularly in developing countries that may not have effective surveillance programs and the capacity to perform viral isolation. We have also included an overview of the factors that render islands vulnerable to epidemics and turn them into amplifying hotspots for connected territories and associated mainland regions. Historical evidence suggests that arboviral diseases have been circulating in the Indian Ocean, Pacific and Caribbean regions for centuries. However, the rapid and explosive pace at which DENV, CHIKV and ZIKV spread throughout these islands in recent times is alarming and demands closer investigation and action. Certainly, the ever-increasing human movement through air-, cruise- and container ship traffic has been shown to be one of the key factors in arboviral spread, particularly across the Caribbean. The recent arboviral epidemics are forcing us to improve our disease prevention and management paradigms.
The epidemiology of arboviruses is complex, involving many intrinsic and extrinsic variables, and for this reason they emerge and re-emerge rather unpredictably. Improving prediction skills would allow improved mitigation strategies. We have summarized below suggestions, which could be implemented to optimize existing efforts:
  • Increase efforts to make viral sequence data publically available;
  • Enhance surveillance by routinely screening for endemic and exotic viruses (e.g., using genus-level screening tools);
  • Increase availability of arboviral surveillance data to connect international public health efforts using platforms such as ProMED;
  • Develop real-time tracking (www.nextstrain.org) and forecasting using syndromic or internet search surveillance [154,155];
  • Expand the pathogenesis and transmission studies of neglected viruses;
  • Search for new viruses using metagenomic and metatranscriptomic approaches that allow for identification and quantification of viral diversity and abundance [156], in addition to classic virology approaches (in vitro cell culture cytopathic effect studies) [157];
  • Increase viral banking of outbreak strains to promote evolutionary and phylodynamics studies;
  • Expand studies on viral cross-reactivity and immunology;
  • Increase field investigations of vectors and potential vertebrate hosts (wildlife and livestock) [158];
  • Study vector competence and adaptability [68,159].
Implementation of these items requires a concerted international effort to allocate the necessary resources and coordinate policy. Expanding existing endeavors such as the World Health Organization SIDS Partnership may provide a way forward. This partnership provides a long-term vision and action plan towards sustainable development on island states [162]. The Maldives are an example of a SIDS that is actively engaging in mosquito source reduction as well as disease management strategies including a dengue hotline to connect clinicians across this expansive archipelago with up-to-date advice [163]. An example of a community-based approach is exemplified by the PAHO, the Caribbean Public Health Agency (CARPHA) and the Caribbean Community’s (CARICOM) “Caribbean Mosquito Awareness Week”, an annual event to raise awareness about the connection between mosquitoes and the diseases they transmit and to work with the community to prevent mosquito breeding [164].
Such efforts also require the adoption of a holistic framework, such as provided by the One Health approach, which emphasizes the need for multi-stakeholder collaborations (including, but not limited to, virologists, entomologists, physicians, ecologists, veterinarians, epidemiologists, anthropologists, bio-informaticians, and mathematical modelers). The One Health One Caribbean One Love Project represents an intriguing example [160]. These efforts could be complemented powerfully by web-based surveillance systems [161]. Using geopolitical connectivity data (i.e., maritime commerce routes, tourism), along with analytical tools such as network analysis, it may be possible to determine the probabilities of pathogen spread in a given region. In conclusion, here we highlighted that islands are at high risk for mosquito-borne viral diseases, and this risk is likely to increase. We believe that working towards an interdisciplinary approach and dovetailing into the objectives of existing scientific collaboration and sustainable development efforts is essential to develop a new way forward. Existing trans-national and regional efforts should be supported and expanded to provide novel comprehensive solutions to emerging and re-emerging health issues linked to vector-borne pathogens.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/11/1/11/s1, Table S1: Table S1. Arboviral imported cases in Florida (2002–2018). Table S2: Florida Arboviral imported cases from the Caribbean (2012–2018).

Author Contributions

C.M.: data search, analysis and curation, supervised, wrote, reviewed and edited, submitted to journal; M.D. and O.M.: data search and analysis, wrote, reviewed and edited; M.S.: reviewed and edited; A.Y.V.: data search, supervised, wrote, reviewed and edited; I.C.: conceptualized, supervised, reviewed and edited. All authors have approved the submitted version and agreed to be personally accountable for the author’s own contributions and for ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work, even ones in which the author was not personally involved, are appropriately investigated, resolved, and documented in the literature.

Funding

This work was supported by funding provided by ZikAction: Preparedness, research and action network on maternal-paediatric axes of ZIKV infection in Latin America and the Caribbean, Grant Agreement Number 734857.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Hanley, K.A.W.S.C. Arbovirus evolution. In Origin and Evolution of Viruses; Domingo, E.P.C.R., Holland, J.J., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2008; pp. 351–391. [Google Scholar]
  2. Young, P.R.; Ng, L.F.P.; Hall, R.A.; Smith, D.W.; Johansen, C.A. Arbovirus infections. In Origin and Evolution of Viruses; Domingo, E.P.C.R., Holland, J.J., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2008. [Google Scholar]
  3. Weaver, S.C.; Barrett, A.D. Transmission cycles, host range, evolution and emergence of arboviral disease. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2004, 2, 789–801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Gould, E.; Pettersson, J.; Higgs, S.; Charrel, R.; de Lamballerie, X. Emerging arboviruses: Why today? One Health 2017, 4, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Musso, D.; Rodriguez-Morales, A.J.; Levi, J.E.; Cao-Lormeau, V.M.; Gubler, D.J. Unexpected outbreaks of arbovirus infections: Lessons learned from the pacific and tropical america. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Cao-Lormeau, V.M. Tropical islands as new hubs for emerging arboviruses. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2016, 22, 913–915. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Wahid, B.; Ali, A.; Rafique, S.; Idrees, M. Global expansion of chikungunya virus: Mapping the 64-year history. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2017, 58, 69–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Borgherini, G.; Poubeau, P.; Staikowsky, F.; Lory, M.; Le Moullec, N.; Becquart, J.P.; Wengling, C.; Michault, A.; Paganin, F. Outbreak of chikungunya on reunion island: Early clinical and laboratory features in 157 adult patients. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2007, 44, 1401–1407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Ramful, D.; Carbonnier, M.; Pasquet, M.; Bouhmani, B.; Ghazouani, J.; Noormahomed, T.; Beullier, G.; Attali, T.; Samperiz, S.; Fourmaintraux, A.; et al. Mother-to-child transmission of chikungunya virus infection. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2007, 26, 811–815. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Sergon, K.; Njuguna, C.; Kalani, R.; Ofula, V.; Onyango, C.; Konongoi, L.S.; Bedno, S.; Burke, H.; Dumilla, A.M.; Konde, J.; et al. Seroprevalence of chikungunya virus (chikv) infection on Lamu island, Kenya, october 2004. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2008, 78, 333–337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Tsetsarkin, K.A.; Vanlandingham, D.L.; McGee, C.E.; Higgs, S. A single mutation in chikungunya virus affects vector specificity and epidemic potential. PLoS Pathog. 2007, 3, e201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Weaver, S.C.; Lecuit, M. Chikungunya virus and the global spread of a mosquito-borne disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2015, 372, 1231–1239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Leparc-Goffart, I.; Nougairede, A.; Cassadou, S.; Prat, C.; de Lamballerie, X. Chikungunya in the americas. Lancet 2014, 383, 514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Weaver, S.C.; Costa, F.; Garcia-Blanco, M.A.; Ko, A.I.; Ribeiro, G.S.; Saade, G.; Shi, P.Y.; Vasilakis, N. Zika virus: History, emergence, biology, and prospects for control. Antivir. Res. 2016, 130, 69–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
  15. Duffy, M.R.; Chen, T.H.; Hancock, W.T.; Powers, A.M.; Kool, J.L.; Lanciotti, R.S.; Pretrick, M.; Marfel, M.; Holzbauer, S.; Dubray, C.; et al. Zika virus outbreak on yap island, federated states of Micronesia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2009, 360, 2536–2543. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Moghadas, S.M.; Shoukat, A.; Espindola, A.L.; Pereira, R.S.; Abdirizak, F.; Laskowski, M.; Viboud, C.; Chowell, G. Asymptomatic transmission and the dynamics of zika infection. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 5829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. WHO. Zika Virus and Complications: 2016 Public Health Emergency of International Concern. Available online: http://www.who.int/emergencies/zika-virus/en/ (accessed on 25 October 2018).
  18. WHO. The History of Zika Virus; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland; Available online: http://www.who.int/emergencies/zika-virus/history/en/ (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  19. Messina, J.P.; Brady, O.J.; Scott, T.W.; Zou, C.; Pigott, D.M.; Duda, K.A.; Bhatt, S.; Katzelnick, L.; Howes, R.E.; Battle, K.E.; et al. Global spread of dengue virus types: Mapping the 70 year history. Trends Microbiol. 2014, 22, 138–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Cao-Lormeau, V.M.; Musso, D. Emerging arboviruses in the pacific. Lancet 2014, 384, 1571–1572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Weaver, S.C.; Reisen, W.K. Present and future arboviral threats. Antivir. Res. 2010, 85, 328–345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
  22. Tortosa, P.; Pascalis, H.; Guernier, V.; Cardinale, E.; Le Corre, M.; Goodman, S.M.; Dellagi, K. Deciphering arboviral emergence within insular ecosystems. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2012, 12, 1333–1339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Catteau, C.; Sissoko, D.; Gauzere, B.A.; Aubry, P. Health status and issues on reunion island in 2005. Med. Trop. (Mars) 2005, 65, 515–524. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  24. McCarthy, D.D.; Brent, R.H. An account of an outbreak of dengue fever in Dzaoudzi, Comoro Islands, January 1943. East Afr. Med. J. 1943, 20, 293–298. [Google Scholar]
  25. Lewis, J.A.; Chang, G.J.; Lanciotti, R.S.; Kinney, R.M.; Mayer, L.W.; Trent, D.W. Phylogenetic relationships of dengue-2 viruses. Virology 1993, 197, 216–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Kles, V.M.A.; Rodhain, F.; Mevel, F.; Chastel, C. A serological survey regarding Flaviviridae infections on the island of Réunion (1971–1989). Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. 1994, 87, 71–76. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  27. Pierre, V.; Thiria, J.; Rachou, E.; Sissoko, D.; Lassale, C.; Renault, P. Epidémie de Dengue 1 à la Réunion en 2004. [dengue 1 Outbreak in Réunion in 2004]. Journées de Veille Sanitaire. 2005. Available online: http://www.invs.sante.fr/ publications/2005/jvs_2005/poster_13.pdf (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  28. Lustig, Y.; Wolf, D.; Halutz, O.; Schwartz, E. An outbreak of dengue virus (denv) type 2 cosmopolitan genotype in Israeli Travellers returning from the Seychelles, April 2017. Eurosurveillance 2017, 22, 30563. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Issack, M.I.; Pursem, V.N.; Barkham, T.M.; Ng, L.C.; Inoue, M.; Manraj, S.S. Reemergence of dengue in Mauritius. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2010, 16, 716–718. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  30. Schwarz, T.F.; Dobler, G.; Gilch, S.; Jager, G. Hepatitis c and arboviral antibodies in the island populations of Mauritius and Rodrigues. J. Med. Virol. 1994, 44, 379–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  31. WHO. National Meeting on Strengthening Dengue Prevention and Control; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
  32. WHO. Dengue Outbreak in the Maldives; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2011. [Google Scholar]
  33. Padbidri, V.S.; Wairagkar, N.S.; Joshi, G.D.; Umarani, U.B.; Risbud, A.R.; Gaikwad, D.L.; Bedekar, S.S.; Divekar, A.D.; Rodrigues, F.M. A serological survey of arboviral diseases among the human population of the andaman and nicobar islands, india. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 2002, 33, 794–800. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  34. Chaaithanya, I.K.; Bhattacharya, D.; Muruganandam, N.; Thamizhmani, R.; Babu, B.V.; Sundaram, S.G.; Matta, M.; Singh, S.S.; Vijayachari, P. Dengue: A newly emerging viral infection in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. Epidemiol. Infect. 2012, 140, 1920–1924. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Muruganandam, N.; Chaaithanya, I.K.; Mullaikodi, S.; Surya, P.; Rajesh, R.; Anwesh, M.; Shriram, A.N.; Vijayachari, P. Dengue virus serotype-3 (subtype-iii) in port Blair, India. J. Vector Borne Dis. 2014, 51, 58–61. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  36. Balenghien, T.; Cardinale, E.; Chevalier, V.; Elissa, N.; Failloux, A.B.; Jean Jose Nipomichene, T.N.; Nicolas, G.; Rakotoharinome, V.M.; Roger, M.; Zumbo, B. Towards a better understanding of rift valley fever epidemiology in the south-west of the Indian Ocean. Vet. Res. 2013, 44, 78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Sissoko, D.; Giry, C.; Gabrie, P.; Tarantola, A.; Pettinelli, F.; Collet, L.; D’Ortenzio, E.; Renault, P.; Pierre, V. Rift valley fever, mayotte, 2007–2008. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2009, 15, 568–570. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Calisher, C.H.; Nuti, M.; Lazuick, J.S.; Ferrari, J.D.; Kappus, K.D. Dengue in the Seychelles. Bull. World Health Organ. 1981, 59, 619–622. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  39. Josseran, L.; Paquet, C.; Zehgnoun, A.; Caillere, N.; Le Tertre, A.; Solet, J.L.; Ledrans, M. Chikungunya disease outbreak, reunion island. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2006, 12, 1994–1995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Parola, P.; de Lamballerie, X.; Jourdan, J.; Rovery, C.; Vaillant, V.; Minodier, P.; Brouqui, P.; Flahault, A.; Raoult, D.; Charrel, R.N. Novel chikungunya virus variant in travelers returning from Indian ocean islands. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2006, 12, 1493–1499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  41. Aubry, M.; Teissier, A.; Roche, C.; Richard, V.; Yan, A.S.; Zisou, K.; Rouault, E.; Maria, V.; Lastere, S.; Cao-Lormeau, V.M.; et al. Chikungunya outbreak, French Polynesia, 2014. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2015, 21, 724–726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Atchareeya, A.; Berlioz-Arthaud, A.; Chow, V.; Endy, T.; Lowry, K.; Mai le, Q.; Ninh, T.U.; Pyke, A.; Reid, M.; Reynes, J.M.; et al. Sustained transmission of dengue virus type 1 in the pacific due to repeated introductions of different Asian strains. Virology 2004, 329, 505–512. [Google Scholar]
  43. Effler, P.V.; Pang, L.; Kitsutani, P.; Vorndam, V.; Nakata, M.; Ayers, T.; Elm, J.; Tom, T.; Reiter, P.; Rigau-Perez, J.G.; et al. Dengue fever, hawaii, 2001–2002. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2005, 11, 742–749. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Moore, P.R.; van den Hurk, A.F.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Pyke, A.T. Dengue viruses in Papua new guinea: Evidence of endemicity and phylogenetic variation, including the evolution of new genetic lineages. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2017, 6, e114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Doherty, R.L.; Whitehead, R.H.; Gorman, B.M.; O’Gower, A.K. The isolation of a third group a arbovirus in Australia with preliminary observations on its relationship to epidemic polyarthritis. Aust. J. Sci. 1963, 26, 183–184. [Google Scholar]
  46. Aaskov, J.G.; Mataika, J.U.; Lawrence, G.W.; Rabukawaqa, V.; Tucker, M.M.; Miles, J.A.; Dalglish, D.A. An epidemic of ross river virus infection in Fiji, 1979. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1981, 30, 1053–1059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Tesh, R.B.; Gajdusek, D.C.; Garruto, R.M.; Cross, J.H.; Rosen, L. The distribution and prevalence of group a arbovirus neutralizing antibodies among human populations in Southeast Asia and the pacific islands. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1975, 24, 664–675. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Lau, C.; Weinstein, P.; Slaney, D. Imported cases of ross river virus disease in new Zealand—A travel medicine perspective. Travel Med. Infect. Dis. 2012, 10, 129–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Aubry, M.; Finke, J.; Teissier, A.; Roche, C.; Broult, J.; Paulous, S.; Despres, P.; Cao-Lormeau, V.M.; Musso, D. Silent circulation of ross river virus in French Polynesia. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2015, 37, 19–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Petersen, L.R.; Jamieson, D.J.; Powers, A.M.; Honein, M.A. Zika virus. N. Engl. J. Med. 2016, 374, 1552–1563. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Cloudsley-Thompson, J.L. Insects and History; St Martins Press: New York, NY, USA, 1976. [Google Scholar]
  52. Gubler, D.J. Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 1998, 11, 480–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  53. Sherpa, S.; Rioux, D.; Goindin, D.; Fouque, F.; Francois, O.; Despres, L. At the origin of a worldwide invasion: Unraveling the genetic makeup of the caribbean bridgehead populations of the dengue vector Aedes aegypti. Genome Biol. Evol. 2018, 10, 56–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Ehrenkranz, N.J.; Ventura, A.K.; Cuadrado, R.R.; Pond, W.L.; Porter, J.E. Pandemic dengue in Caribbean countries and the southern united states—Past, present and potential problems. N. Engl. J. Med. 1971, 285, 1460–1469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Brathwaite Dick, O.; San Martin, J.L.; Montoya, R.H.; del Diego, J.; Zambrano, B.; Dayan, G.H. The history of dengue outbreaks in the americas. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2012, 87, 584–593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Pinheiro, F.P.; Corber, S.J. Global situation of dengue and dengue haemorrhagic fever, and its emergence in the Americas. World Health Stat. Q. 1997, 50, 161–169. [Google Scholar]
  57. Anderson, C.R.; Downs, W.G.; Hill, A.E. Isolation of dengue virus from a human being in Trinidad. Science 1956, 124, 224–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. PAHO. Report on Aedes Aegypti Control; PAHO: Washington, DC, USA, 1997. [Google Scholar]
  59. Spence, L.; Jonkers, A.H.; Casals, J. Dengue type 3 virus isolated from an Antiguan patient during the 1963–1964 Caribbean epidemic. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1969, 18, 584–587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Moody, C.O.; Bowen Wright, C.E.; Murray, J.; Castle, T.; Barrett, M.; Dunkley, G.; Watson, L. Emergency control of vectors during a dengue outbreak in Jamaica, 1977. In Dengue in the Caribbean; Pan American Health Organization: Washington, DC, USA, 1979; pp. 1987–1997. [Google Scholar]
  61. Kouri, G.; Guzman, M.G.; Bravo, J. Hemorrhagic dengue in cuba: History of an epidemic. Bull. Pan Am. Health Organ. 1986, 20, 24–30. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  62. Vasilenko, V.A.; Martinez, A.F.; Herrera Alvarez, M.; Mas Lago, P.; Del Barrio Alonso, G. The antigenic structure of arboviruses isolated from the territory of the Cuban republic during the epizootic of eastern equine encephalomyelitis in May 1969. Vop. Virusol. 1971, 16, 682–685. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  63. Berezin, V.V. Characteristics of the ecology of the eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus in the republic of cuba. Vop. Virusol. 1977, 1, 62–70. [Google Scholar]
  64. Auguste, A.J.; Volk, S.M.; Arrigo, N.C.; Martinez, R.; Ramkissoon, V.; Adams, A.P.; Thompson, N.N.; Adesiyun, A.A.; Chadee, D.D.; Foster, J.E.; et al. Isolation and phylogenetic analysis of mucambo virus (Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex subtype IIIA) in Trinidad. Virology 2009, 392, 123–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. Anderson, C.R.; Downs, W.G.; Wattley, G.H.; Ahin, N.W.; Reese, A.A. Mayaro virus: A new human disease agent. II. Isolation from blood of patients in Trinidad, BWI. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1957, 6, 1012–1016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. White, S.K.; Mavian, C.; Elbadry, M.A.; De Rochars, V.M.B.; Paisie, T.; Telisma, T.; Salemi, M.; Lednicky, J.A.; Morris, J.G. Detection and phylogenetic characterization of arbovirus dual-infections among persons during a chikungunya fever outbreak, Haiti 2014. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2018, 12, e0006505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Lednicky, J.; De Rochars, V.M.; Elbadry, M.; Loeb, J.; Telisma, T.; Chavannes, S.; Anilis, G.; Cella, E.; Ciccozzi, M.; Okech, B.; et al. Mayaro virus in child with acute febrile illness, Haiti, 2015. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2016, 22, 2000–2002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Mavian, C.; Rife, B.D.; Dollar, J.J.; Cella, E.; Ciccozzi, M.; Prosperi, M.C.F.; Lednicky, J.; Morris, J.G.; Capua, I.; Salemi, M. Emergence of recombinant mayaro virus strains from the amazon basin. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 8718. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Sakkas, H.; Bozidis, P.; Franks, A.; Papadopoulou, C. Oropouche fever: A review. Viruses 2018, 10, 175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Spence, L.; Anderson, C.R.; Aitken, T.H.; Downs, W.G. Bushbush, IERI and Lukuni viruses, three unrelated new agents isolated from Trinidadian forest mosquitoes. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 1967, 125, 45–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Downs, W.G.; Anderson, C.R.; Casals, J. The isolation of St. Louis virus from a nestling bird in Trinidad, British west indies. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1957, 6, 693–696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Anderson, C.R.; Aitken, T.H.; Downs, W.G.; Spence, L. The isolation of St. Louis virus from Trinidad mosquitoes. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1957, 6, 688–692. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  73. Thompson, N.N.; Auguste, A.J.; Coombs, D.; Blitvich, B.J.; Carrington, C.V.; da Rosa, A.P.; Wang, E.; Chadee, D.D.; Drebot, M.A.; Tesh, R.B.; et al. Serological evidence of flaviviruses and alphaviruses in livestock and wildlife in Trinidad. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2012, 12, 969–978. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  74. Spence, L.; Anderson, C.R.; Downs, W.G. Isolation of ilheus virus from human beings in Trinidad, west indies. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1962, 56, 504–509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Jonkers, A.H.; Metselaar, D.; de Andrade, A.H.; Tikasingh, E.S. Restan virus, a new group c arbovirus from trinidad and Surinam. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1967, 16, 74–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  76. ProMED-Mail Post West Nile Virus, Human—Cayman Islands. 2001. Available online: http://www.promedmail.org/post/20011016.2538 (accessed on 25 December 2018).
  77. Komar, N.; Clark, G.G. West nile virus activity in Latin America and the Caribbean. Rev. Panam. Salud Publica 2006, 19, 112–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Dorleans, F.; Hoen, B.; Najioullah, F.; Herrmann-Storck, C.; Schepers, K.M.; Abel, S.; Lamaury, I.; Fagour, L.; Cesaire, R.; Guyomard, S.; et al. Outbreak of chikungunya in the French Caribbean islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe: Findings from a hospital-based surveillance system (2013–2015). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2018, 98, 1819–1825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Cassadou, S.; Boucau, S.; Petit-Sinturel, M.; Huc, P.; Leparc-Goffart, I.; Ledrans, M. Emergence of chikungunya fever on the French side of Saint Martin island, October to December 2013. Eurosurveill 2014, 19, 20752. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
  80. Carey, D.E. Chikungunya and dengue: A case of mistaken identity? J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci. 1971, 26, 243–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Sahadeo, N.S.D.; Allicock, O.M.; De Salazar, P.M.; Auguste, A.J.; Widen, S.; Olowokure, B.; Gutierrez, C.; Valadere, A.M.; Polson-Edwards, K.; Weaver, S.C.; et al. Understanding the evolution and spread of chikungunya virus in the Americas using complete genome sequences. Virus Evol. 2017, 3, vex010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Spiteri, G.; Sudre, B.; Septfons, A.; Beauté, J. Surveillance of Zika Virus Infection in the Eu/Eea, June 2015 to January 2017. Euro Surveill 2017, 22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  83. Grubaugh, N.D.; Ladner, J.T.; Kraemer, M.U.G.; Dudas, G.; Tan, A.L.; Gangavarapu, K.; Wiley, M.R.; White, S.; Thézé, J.; Magnani, D.M.; et al. Genomic epidemiology reveals multiple introductions of zika virus into the united states. Nature 2017, 546, 401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  84. LaBeaud, A.D. Why arboviruses can be neglected tropical diseases. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2008, 2, e247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  85. Gardner, L.M.; Bota, A.; Gangavarapu, K.; Kraemer, M.U.G.; Grubaugh, N.D. Inferring the risk factors behind the geographical spread and transmission of zika in the americas. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2018, 12, e0006194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Zellweger, R.M.; Cano, J.; Mangeas, M.; Taglioni, F.; Mercier, A.; Despinoy, M.; Menkes, C.E.; Dupont-Rouzeyrol, M.; Nikolay, B.; Teurlai, M. Socioeconomic and environmental determinants of dengue transmission in an urban setting: An ecological study in Noumea, New Caledonia. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2017, 11, e0005471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  87. Bonifay, T.; Douine, M.; Bonnefoy, C.; Hurpeau, B.; Nacher, M.; Djossou, F.; Epelboin, L. Poverty and arbovirus outbreaks: When chikungunya virus hits more precarious populations than dengue virus in French Guiana. Open Forum Infect. Dis. 2017, 4, ofx247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  88. UNCED. Earth Summit, Agenda 21; UNCED: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1992. [Google Scholar]
  89. Small Island Developing States. Available online: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/sids (accessed on 20 October 2018).
  90. Briguglio, L. Small island developing states and their economic vulnerabilities. World Dev. 1995, 23, 1615–1632. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
  91. Dimou, M.S. Growth and convergence of small insular economies. In Proceedings of the ASRDLF, ERSA-GR 2017, Athens, Greece, 5–7 July 2017. [Google Scholar]
  92. Tisdell, C. Economic challenges faced by small island economies: An overview. In The Challenge of eu Enlargement: Northern Cyprus—Understanding a Small Island Economy in Isolation; Gunüçavdi, Ö., Ed.; Nova Science Publishers: New York, NY, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
  93. Grant, C. U.S.-Caribbean Relations. Institute for Policy Studies. Available online: https://ips-dc.org/us-caribbean_relations/ (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  94. Barrera, R.; Avila, J.; Gonzalez-Tellez, S. Unreliable supply of potable water and elevated Aedes aegypti larval indices: A causal relationship? J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 1993, 9, 189–195. [Google Scholar]
  95. Ramos, M.M.; Mohammed, H.; Zielinski-Gutierrez, E.; Hayden, M.H.; Lopez, J.L.; Fournier, M.; Trujillo, A.R.; Burton, R.; Brunkard, J.M.; Anaya-Lopez, L.; et al. Epidemic dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever at the Texas-Mexico border: Results of a household-based Seroepidemiologic survey, December 2005. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2008, 78, 364–369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Gould, E.A.; Higgs, S. Impact of climate change and other factors on emerging arbovirus diseases. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 103, 109–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
  97. Patz, J.A.; Campbell-Lendrum, D.; Holloway, T.; Foley, J.A. Impact of regional climate change on human health. Nature 2005, 438, 310–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  98. Nicholls, R.J.; Cazenave, A. Sea-level rise and its impact on coastal zones. Science 2010, 328, 1517–1520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  99. Wong, P.P.; Losada, I.J.; Gattuso, J.P.; Hinkel, J.; Khattabi, A.; McInnes, K.L.; Saito, Y.; Sallenger, A. Coastal Systems and Low-Lying Areas; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2014; pp. 361–409. [Google Scholar]
  100. Pelling, M.; Uitto, J.I. Small island developing states: Natural disaster vulnerability and global change. Environ. Hazards 2001, 3, 49–62. [Google Scholar]
  101. Bellard, C.; Leclerc, C.; Courchamp, F. Impact of sea level rise on the 10 insular biodiversity hotspots. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 2014, 23, 203–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. The-World-Bank. Climate Change in the Maldives. Available online: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:22413695~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  103. Newell, J. Climate Change in the Marshall Islands. Available online: https://www.amnh.org/explore/videos/(watch)/research-and-collections/climate-change-in-the-marshall-islands (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  104. Hunter, J.A. A Note on Relative Sea Level Rise at Funafuti, Tuvalu; Antarctic Cooperative Research Center: Hobart, Australia, 2002. [Google Scholar]
  105. Patel, S.S. Climate science: A sinking feeling. Nature 2006, 440, 734–736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  106. Reiter, P. Climate change and mosquito-borne disease. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 141. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  107. Waldock, J.; Chandra, N.L.; Lelieveld, J.; Proestos, Y.; Michael, E.; Christophides, G.; Parham, P.E. The role of environmental variables on Aedes albopictus biology and chikungunya epidemiology. Pathog. Glob. Health 2013, 107, 224–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Schneider, J.R.; Chadee, D.D.; Mori, A.; Romero-Severson, J.; Severson, D.W. Heritability and adaptive phenotypic plasticity of adult body size in the mosquito Aedes aegypti with implications for dengue vector competence. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2011, 11, 11–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Chadee, D.D.; Martinez, R. Aedes aegypti (L.) in latin american and caribbean region: With growing evidence for vector adaptation to climate change? Acta Trop. 2016, 156, 137–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Ramasamy, R.; Jude, P.J.; Veluppillai, T.; Eswaramohan, T.; Surendran, S.N. Biological differences between brackish and fresh water-derived Aedes aegypti from two locations in the jaffna peninsula of sri lanka and the implications for arboviral disease transmission. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e104977. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  111. Krishnamoorthy, K.; Jambulingam, P.; Natarajan, R.; Shriram, A.N.; Das, P.K.; Sehgal, S.C. Altered environment and risk of malaria outbreak in south Andaman, Andaman & Nicobar islands, India affected by tsunami disaster. Malar. J. 2005, 4, 32. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  112. WHO. Dengue Guidelines for Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2009. [Google Scholar]
  113. Mimura, N.N.L.; McLean, R.; Agard, J.; Briguglio, L.; Lefale, P.; Sem, G. Small Islands; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2007; Volume 9. [Google Scholar]
  114. Wiley, J.; Wunderle, J.M. The effects of hurricanes on birds, with special reference to Caribbean islands. Bird Conserv. Int. 1983, 3, 319–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  115. Rappole, J.H.; Derrickson, S.R.; Hubalek, Z. Migratory birds and spread of west Nile virus in the western hemisphere. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2000, 6, 319–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  116. Ernst, K.C.; Brown, C.W.; Morin, H.E. Exreme weather events and vector-borne diseases. In Handbook of Public Health in Natural Disasters; Wageningen Academic Publishers: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2015; Volume 10, pp. 489–511. [Google Scholar]
  117. Ritchie, S.A.; Rochester, W. Wind-blown mosquitoes and introduction of Japanese encephalitis into Australia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2001, 7, 900–903. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  118. Hinojosa, J.; Meléndez, E. Puerto Rican Exodus: One Year since Hurricane Maria. Available online: https://centropr.hunter.cuny.edu/research/data-center/research-briefs/puerto-rican-exodus-one-year-hurricane-maria (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  119. Gloria-Soria, A.; Ayala, D.; Bheecarry, A.; Calderon-Arguedas, O.; Chadee, D.D.; Chiappero, M.; Coetzee, M.; Elahee, K.B.; Fernandez-Salas, I.; Kamal, H.A.; et al. Global genetic diversity of Aedes aegypti. Mol. Ecol. 2016, 25, 5377–5395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  120. Powell, J.R.; Tabachnick, W.J. History of domestication and spread of Aedes aegypti—A review. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 2013, 108, 11–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  121. Wasem, R.E. U.S. Immigration policy on Haitian migrants. Immigr. Policy. Available online: https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS21349.pdf (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  122. Rawlinson, T.; Siqueira, A.M.; Fontes, G.; Beltrao, R.P.; Monteiro, W.M.; Martins, M.; Silva-Junior, E.F.; Mourao, M.P.; Albuquerque, B.; Alecrim, M.; et al. From Haiti to the amazon: Public health issues related to the recent immigration of Haitians to brazil. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2014, 8, e2685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  123. Weaver, S.C. Urbanization and geographic expansion of zoonotic arboviral diseases: Mechanisms and potential strategies for prevention. Trends Microbiol. 2013, 21, 360–363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  124. Gratz, N.G. Critical review of the vector status of Aedes albopictus. Med. Vet. Entomol. 2004, 18, 215–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  125. Montagner, F.R.G.; Silva, O.S.; Jahnke, S.M. Mosquito species occurrence in association with landscape composition in green urban areas. Braz. J. Biol. 2018, 78, 233–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  126. Kraemer, M.U.; Sinka, M.E.; Duda, K.A.; Mylne, A.Q.; Shearer, F.M.; Barker, C.M.; Moore, C.G.; Carvalho, R.G.; Coelho, G.E.; Van Bortel, W.; et al. The global distribution of the arbovirus vectors Aedes aegypti and ae. Albopictus. Elife 2015, 4, e08347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  127. Li, Y.; Kamara, F.; Zhou, G.; Puthiyakunnon, S.; Li, C.; Liu, Y.; Zhou, Y.; Yao, L.; Yan, G.; Chen, X.G. Urbanization increases Aedes albopictus larval habitats and accelerates mosquito development and survivorship. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2014, 8, e3301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  128. Paupy, C.; Girod, R.; Salvan, M.; Rodhain, F.; Failloux, A.B. Population structure of Aedes albopictus from la reunion island (indian ocean) with respect to susceptibility to a dengue virus. Heredity (Edinb) 2001, 87, 273–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  129. Tatem, A.J.; Rogers, D.J.; Hay, S.I. Global transport networks and infectious disease spread. Adv. Parasitol. 2006, 62, 293–343. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  130. Bryant, J.E.; Holmes, E.C.; Barrett, A.D.T. Out of africa: A molecular perspective on the introduction of yellow fever virus into the americas. PLoS Pathog. 2007, 3, 668–673. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  131. Tatem, A.J.; Hay, S.I.; Rogers, D.J. Global traffic and disease vector dispersal. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 6242–6247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
  132. Reiter, P.; Sprenger, D. The used tire trade—A mechanism for the worldwide dispersal of container breeding mosquitos. J. Am. Mosq. Control 1987, 3, 494–501. [Google Scholar]
  133. Goubert, C.; Minard, G.; Vieira, C.; Boulesteix, M. Population genetics of the asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus, an invasive vector of human diseases. Heredity (Edinb) 2016, 117, 125–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  134. Calvez, E.; Guillaumot, L.; Millet, L.; Marie, J.; Bossin, H.; Rama, V.; Faamoe, A.; Kilama, S.; Teurlai, M.; Mathieu-Daude, F.; et al. Genetic diversity and phylogeny of Aedes aegypti, the main arbovirus vector in the pacific. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2016, 10, e0004374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Shineberg, D. They Came for Sandalwood. A Study of the Sandalwood Trade in the South-West Pacific; Melbourne University: Melbourne, Australia, 1967; pp. 1830–1865. [Google Scholar]
  136. Fonzi, E.; Higa, Y.; Bertuso, A.G.; Futami, K.; Minakawa, N. Human-mediated marine dispersal influences the population structure of Aedes aegypti in the philippine archipelago. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2015, 9, e0003829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  137. Vazeille, M.; Dehecq, J.S.; Failloux, A.B. Vectorial status of the asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus of la reunion island for zika virus. Med. Vet. Entomol. 2018, 32, 251–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  138. Widmar, N.J.; Dominick, S.R.; Ruple, A.; Tyner, W.E. The influence of health concern on travel plans with focus on the zika virus in 2016. Prev. Med. Rep. 2017, 6, 162–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  139. Travel.State.Gov. Zika Virus Information for Travelers. Available online: https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/international-travel/before-you-go/your-health-abroad/zika-virus-information-for-travelers.html (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  140. Mowatt, L.; Jackson, S.T. Chikungunya in the caribbean: An epidemic in the making. Infect. Dis. Ther. 2014, 3, 63–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  141. Pfeffer, M.; Hanus, I.; Loscher, T.; Homeier, T.; Dobler, G. Chikungunya fever in two German tourists returning from the maldives, September 2009. Eurosurveill 2010, 15, 19531. [Google Scholar]
  142. Hochedez, P.; Jaureguiberry, S.; Debruyne, M.; Bossi, P.; Hausfater, P.; Brucker, G.; Bricaire, F.; Caumes, E. Chikungunya infection in travelers. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2006, 12, 1565–1567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  143. The-World-Bank. Air Transport, Passengers Carried, International Civil Aviation Organization, Civil Aviation Statistics of the World and ICAO Staff Estimates; The-World-Bank: Washington, DC, USA.
  144. Economy, Geography, Trade and Demography of the Caribbean Islands. Available online: http://www.caribbean-atlas.com/en/the-caribbean-in-brief/the-caribbean-islands/ (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  145. Coffey, L.L.; Crawford, C.; Dee, J.; Miller, R.; Freier, J.; Weaver, S.C. Serologic evidence of widespread everglades virus activity in dogs, Florida. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2006, 12, 1873–1879. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  146. Doh Nassau—Health Officials Reinforce Mosquito-Borne Illnesses Advisory after First Human Case of West Nile Virus Infection. Available online: http://nassau.floridahealth.gov/newsroom/2018/08/reinforce-mosquito-illness.html (accessed on 20 October 2018).
  147. Florida Department of Health. Reporting Data for Arbovirus Surveillance; 2018. Available online: http://www.floridahealth.gov/diseases-and-conditions/mosquito-borne-diseases/surveillance.html (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  148. Florida Department of Health. Reporting Data for Arbovirus Surveillance; 2016. Available online: http://www.floridahealth.gov/diseases-and-conditions/mosquito-borne-diseases/_documents/2016/week48arbovirusreport-12-3-16.pdf (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  149. Florida Department of Health. Reporting Data for Arbovirus Surveillance; 2017. Available online: http://www.floridahealth.gov/diseases-and-conditions/mosquito-borne-diseases/_documents/2017/2017-week-48-arbovirus-surveillance-report.pdf (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  150. Munoz, A.G.; Thomson, M.C.; Stewart-Ibarra, A.M.; Vecchi, G.A.; Chourio, X.; Najera, P.; Moran, Z.; Yang, X. Could the recent zika epidemic have been predicted? Front. Microbiol. 2017, 8, 1291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  151. Dupont-Rouzeyrol, M.; Diancourt, L.; Calvez, E.; Vandenbogaert, M.; O’Connor, O.; Teissier, A.; Pol, M.; Aubry, M.; Faye, O.; Tou, D.; et al. Zika virus evolution on the edges of the Pacific Ocean. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2017, 6, e111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  152. Gyawali, N.; Bradbury, R.S.; Aaskov, J.G.; Taylor-Robinson, A.W. Neglected Australian arboviruses and undifferentiated febrile illness: Addressing public health challenges arising from the ’developing northern Australia’ government policy. Front. Microbiol. 2017, 8, 2150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  153. Vasconcelos, P.F.; Travassos da Rosa, A.P.; Rodrigues, S.G.; Travassos da Rosa, E.S.; Degallier, N.; Travassos da Rosa, J.F. Inadequate management of natural ecosystem in the brazilian amazon region results in the emergence and reemergence of arboviruses. Cad Saude Publica 2001, 17, 155–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  154. Yang, S.; Santillana, M.; Brownstein, J.S.; Gray, J.; Richardson, S.; Kou, S.C. Using electronic health records and internet search information for accurate influenza forecasting. BMC Infect. Dis. 2017, 17, 332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  155. Santillana, M. Editorial commentary: Perspectives on the future of internet search engines and Biosurveillance systems. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2017, 64, 42–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  156. Dolja, V.V.; Koonin, E.V. Metagenomics reshapes the concepts of rna virus evolution by revealing extensive horizontal virus transfer. Virus Res. 2018, 244, 36–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  157. Lednicky, J.; Beau De Rochars, V.M.; El Badry, M.; Loeb, J.; Telisma, T.; Chavannes, S.; Anilis, G.; Cella, E.; Ciccozzi, M.; Rashid, M.; et al. Zika virus outbreak in Haiti in 2014: Molecular and clinical data. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2016, 10, e0004687. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  158. Van-den-Hurk, A.F.; Ritchie, S.A.; Johansen, C.A.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Smith, G.A. Domestic pigs and japanese encephalitis virus infection, australia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, 1736–1738. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  159. Epelboin, Y.; Talaga, S.; Epelboin, L.; Dusfour, I. Zika virus: An updated review of competent or naturally infected mosquitoes. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2017, 11, e0005933. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  160. One-Health-Caribbean-Love. Available online: https://www.onehealthcaribbean.org/index.php/aboutus/one-health-one-caribbean-one-love-project (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  161. Choi, J.; Cho, Y.; Shim, E.; Woo, H. Web-based infectious disease surveillance systems and public health perspectives: A systematic review. BMC Public Health 2016, 16, 1238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  162. WHO. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform. Available online: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/sids (accessed on 15 October 2018).
  163. Bangert, M.; Latheef, A.T.; Dev Pant, S.; Nishan Ahmed, I.; Saleem, S.; Nazla Rafeeq, F.; Abdulla, M.; Shamah, F.; Jamsheed Mohamed, A.; Fitzpatrick, C.; et al. Economic analysis of dengue prevention and case management in the Maldives. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2018, 12, e0006796. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  164. PAHO-WHO. Available online: https://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=12355:cde-mosquito-awareness-week&Itemid=42087&lang=en (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  165. Zeller, H.G. [dengue, arbovirus and migrations in the indian ocean]. Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. 1998, 91, 56–60. [Google Scholar]
  166. Boisier, P.; Morvan, J.M.; Laventure, S.; Charrier, N.; Martin, E.; Ouledi, A.; Roux, J. Dengue 1 epidemic in the grand Comoro island (Federal Islamic Republic of the Comores). March–May 1993. Ann. Soc. Belg. Med. Trop. 1994, 74, 217–229. [Google Scholar]
  167. Dellagi, K.; Salez, N.; Maquart, M.; Larrieu, S.; Yssouf, A.; Silai, R.; Leparc-Goffart, I.; Tortosa, P.; de Lamballerie, X. Serological evidence of contrasted exposure to arboviral infections between islands of the union of Comoros (Indian Ocean). PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2016, 10, e0004840. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  168. Kukreti, H.; Chaudhary, A.; Rautela, R.S.; Anand, R.; Mittal, V.; Chhabra, M.; Bhattacharya, D.; Lal, S.; Rai, A. Emergence of an independent lineage of dengue virus type 1 (denv-1) and its co-circulation with predominant denv-3 during the 2006 dengue fever outbreak in Delhi. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2008, 12, 542–549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  169. Sissoko, D.; Ezzedine, K.; Giry, C.; Moendandze, A.; Lernout, T.; D’Ortenzio, E.; Pettinelli, F.; Malvy, D. Seroepidemiology of dengue virus in Mayotte, Indian Ocean, 2006. PLoS ONE 2010, 5, e14141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  170. Sissoko, D.; Malvy, D.; Giry, C.; Delmas, G.; Paquet, C.; Gabrie, P.; Pettinelli, F.; Sanquer, M.A.; Pierre, V. Outbreak of chikungunya fever in Mayotte, Comoros Archipelago, 2005–2006. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2008, 102, 780–786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  171. Gautret, P.; Simon, F.; Hervius Askling, H.; Bouchaud, O.; Leparc-Goffart, I.; Ninove, L.; Parola, P.; EuroTravNet. Dengue type 3 virus infections in European travellers returning from the Comoros and Zanzibar, February–April 2010. Eurosurveill 2010, 15, 19541. [Google Scholar]
  172. Renault, P.; Josseran, L.; Pierre, V. Chikungunya-related fatality rates, Mauritius, India, and Reunion Island. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, 1327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  173. Abdulla, A.A.; Rasheeda, F.; Ahmed, I.N.; Aboobakur, M. An evaluation of the surveillance system for dengue virus infections in Maldives. WHO South East Asia J. Public Health 2014, 3, 60–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  174. Lai, S.; Johansson, M.A.; Yin, W.; Wardrop, N.A.; van Panhuis, W.G.; Wesolowski, A.; Kraemer, M.U.G.; Bogoch, I.I.; Kain, D.; Findlater, A.; et al. Seasonal and interannual risks of dengue introduction from South-East Asia into China, 2005–2015. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2018, 12, e0006743. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  175. Yoosuf, A.A.; Shiham, I.; Mohamed, A.J.; Ali, G.; Luna, J.M.; Pandav, R.; Gongal, G.N.; Nisaluk, A.; Jarman, R.G.; Gibbons, R.V. First report of chikungunya from the Maldives. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 103, 192–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  176. Korhonen, E.M.; Huhtamo, E.; Smura, T.; Kallio-Kokko, H.; Raassina, M.; Vapalahti, O. Zika virus infection in a traveller returning from the Maldives, June 2015. Eurosurveill 2016, 21, 30107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  177. Tesh, R.B.; McLean, R.G.; Shroyer, D.A.; Calisher, C.H.; Rosen, L. Ross river virus (togaviridae: Alphavirus) infection (epidemic polyarthritis) in American Samoa. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1981, 75, 426–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  178. Healy, J.M.; Burgess, M.C.; Chen, T.H.; Hancock, W.T.; Toews, K.E.; Anesi, M.S.; Tulafono, R.T., Jr.; Mataia, M.A.; Sili, B.; Solaita, J.; et al. Notes from the field: Outbreak of Zika virus disease—American Samoa, 2016. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2016, 65, 1146–1147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  179. Rosen, L.; Gubler, D.J.; Bennett, P.H. Epidemic polyarthritis (Ross River) virus infection in the Cook Islands. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1981, 30, 1294–1302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  180. Rosen, L. A recent outbreak of dengue in French Polynesia. Jpn. J. Med. Sci. Biol. 1967, 20, 67–69. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  181. Moreau, J.P.; Rosen, L.; Saugrain, J.; Lagraulet, J. An epidemic of dengue on Tahiti associated with hemorrhagic manifestations. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1973, 22, 237–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  182. WHO. Monograph on Dengue/Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever; World Health Organization Regional Office for South-East Asia: New Delhi, India, 1993. [Google Scholar]
  183. Cao-Lormeau, V.M.; Roche, C.; Teissier, A.; Robin, E.; Berry, A.L.; Mallet, H.P.; Sall, A.A.; Musso, D. Zika virus, french polynesia, South Pacific, 2013. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2014, 20, 1085–1086. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  184. Wilbar, C.L. Control of dengue in Hawaii. Am. J. Public Health Nat. Health 1947, 37, 663–674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  185. Nemeth, N.M.; Bosco-Lauth, A.M.; Sciulli, R.H.; Gose, R.B.; Nagata, M.T.; Bowen, R.A. Serosurveillance for japanese encephalitis and west nile viruses in resident birds in Hawai’i. J. Wildl. Dis. 2010, 46, 659–664. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  186. Peterson, L.R. Interim Assessment of the Response by the Hawaii State Department of Health to the Dengue Outbreak on the Island of Hawaii; Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2015.
  187. Johnston, D.; Viray, M.; Ushiroda, J.; Whelen, A.C.; Sciulli, R.; Gose, R.; Lee, R.; Honda, E.; Park, S.Y.; Hawaii Dengue Response, T. Notes from the field: Outbreak of locally acquired cases of dengue fever—Hawaii, 2015. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2016, 65, 34–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  188. Gubler, D.J.; Reed, D.; Rosen, L.; Hitchcock, J.R., Jr. Epidemiologic, clinical, and virologic observations on dengue in the kingdom of Tonga. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1978, 27, 581–589. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  189. Fauran, P.; Donaldson, M.; Harper, J.; Oseni, R.A.; Aaskov, J.G. Characterization of ross river viruses isolated from patients with polyarthritis in new Caledonia and Wallis and Futuna Islands. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1984, 33, 1228–1231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  190. Fauran, P.; Le Gonidec, G.; Pujol, P. A dengue epidemic at Futuna. Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. Filiales 1978, 71, 400–409. [Google Scholar]
  191. Tognarelli, J.; Ulloa, S.; Villagra, E.; Lagos, J.; Aguayo, C.; Fasce, R.; Parra, B.; Mora, J.; Becerra, N.; Lagos, N.; et al. A report on the outbreak of zika virus on Easter Island, South Pacific, 2014. Arch. Virol. 2016, 161, 665–668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  192. Barnes, W.J.; Rosen, L. Fatal hemorrhagic disease and shock associated with primary dengue infection on a pacific island. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1974, 23, 495–506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  193. Kindhauser, M.K.; Allen, T.; Frank, V. Zika: The origin and spread of a mosquito-borne virus. Bull. World Health Organ. 2016, 94, 675–686. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  194. Ashford, D.A.; Savage, H.M.; Hajjeh, R.A.; McReady, J.; Bartholomew, D.M.; Spiegel, R.A.; Vorndam, V.; Clark, G.G.; Gubler, D.G. Outbreak of dengue fever in Palau, western pacific: Risk factors for infection. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2003, 69, 135–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  195. Leder, K.; Grobusch, M.P.; Gautret, P.; Chen, L.H.; Kuhn, S.; Lim, P.L.; Yates, J.; McCarthy, A.E.; Rothe, C.; Kato, Y.; et al. Zika beyond the Americas: Travelers as sentinels of zika virus transmission. A geosentinel analysis, 2012 to 2016. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0185689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  196. Savage, H.M.; Fritz, C.L.; Rutstein, D.; Yolwa, A.; Vorndam, V.; Gubler, D.J. Epidemic of dengue-4 virus in yap state, federated states of Micronesia, and implication of Aedes Hensilli as an epidemic vector. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1998, 58, 519–524. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  197. Martin, B. Dengue Fever Type 1 Outbreak in Yap. Inform’ ACTION n-20 2005; 11-2. Available online: http://www.spc.int/phs/ENGLISH/Publications/InformACTION/IA20-contents.htm (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  198. Pastula, D.M.; Hancock, W.T.; Bel, M.; Biggs, H.; Marfel, M.; Lanciotti, R.; Laven, J.; Chen, T.H.; Staples, J.E.; Fischer, M.; et al. Chikungunya virus disease outbreak in yap state, federated states of Micronesia. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2017, 11, e0005410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  199. Miles, J.A.; Maguire, T.; Austin, F.J.; Ross, R.W.; Ordish, R. Evidence of arbovirus infection in Fiji. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1964, 13, 327–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  200. Loison, J. La Dengue en Nouvelle-Calédonie (1971–1972). J. Soc. Océan. Ann. 1974, 42, 105–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  201. Berlioz-Arthaud, A. Laboratory Surveillance of Dengue Fever in New-Caledonia; Institut Pasteur de Nouvelle Caledonie: Nouméa, France, 2004. [Google Scholar]
  202. Panon, G.; Le Gonidec, G.; Fauran, P. Laboratory diagnosis of epidemic polyarthritis (ross river virus) in new caledonia. Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. Filiales 1983, 76, 755–760. [Google Scholar]
  203. Laille, M.; Deubel, V.; Sainte-Marie, F.F. Demonstration of concurrent dengue 1 and dengue 3 infection in six patients by the polymerase chain reaction. J. Med. Virol. 1991, 34, 51–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  204. Dupont-Rouzeyrol, M.; Caro, V.; Guillaumot, L.; Vazeille, M.; D’Ortenzio, E.; Thiberge, J.M.; Baroux, N.; Gourinat, A.C.; Grandadam, M.; Failloux, A.B. Chikungunya virus and the mosquito vector Aedes aegypti in new caledonia (south pacific region). Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2012, 12, 1036–1041. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  205. Anderson, S.G.; Price Av, N.-K.; Slater, K. Murray valley encephalitis in Papua and new guinea. Ii. Serological survey, 1956–1957. Med. J. Aust. 1960, 47, 410–413. [Google Scholar]
  206. Van, T.H.; Essed, W.C.; Timmers, W.C. Neutralizing antigens for Murray valley encephalitis, Denguel and dengue 2 viruses in human sera collected in the southeastern part of Dutch new guinea (West Papua). Acta Leiden 1963, 32, 286–291. [Google Scholar]
  207. Mackenzie, J.S.; Lindsay, M.D.; Coelen, R.J.; Broom, A.K.; Hall, R.A.; Smith, D.W. Arboviruses causing human disease in the Australasian zoogeographic region. Arch. Virol. 1994, 136, 447–467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  208. Japanese Encephalitis and West Nile Viruses; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2002; Volume 267.
  209. Horwood, P.F.; Reimer, L.J.; Dagina, R.; Susapu, M.; Bande, G.; Katusele, M.; Koimbu, G.; Jimmy, S.; Ropa, B.; Siba, P.M.; et al. Outbreak of chikungunya virus infection, Vanimo, Papua New Guinea. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2013, 19, 1535–1538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  210. PAHO. Timeline of Emergence of Zika Virus in the Americas. Available online: https://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11959:timeline-of-emergence-of-zika-virus-in-the-americas&Itemid=41711&lang=en (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  211. Kouri, G.P.; Guzman, M.G.; Bravo, J.R. Why dengue Haemorrhagic fever in Cuba? 2. An integral analysis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1987, 81, 821–823. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  212. Limonta, D.; Falcon, V.; Torres, G.; Capo, V.; Menendez, I.; Rosario, D.; Castellanos, Y.; Alvarez, M.; Rodriguez-Roche, R.; de la Rosa, M.C.; et al. Dengue virus identification by transmission electron microscopy and molecular methods in fatal dengue hemorrhagic fever. Infection 2012, 40, 689–694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  213. Langsjoen, R.M.; Rubinstein, R.J.; Kautz, T.F.; Auguste, A.J.; Erasmus, J.H.; Kiaty-Figueroa, L.; Gerhardt, R.; Lin, D.; Hari, K.L.; Jain, R.; et al. Molecular virologic and clinical characteristics of a chikungunya fever outbreak in La Romana, Dominican Republic, 2014. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2016, 10, e0005189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  214. Ventura, A.K.; Ehrenkranz, N.J. Endemic dengue virus infection in Hispaniola. I. Haiti. J. Infect. Dis. 1976, 134, 436–441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  215. McLean, R.G.; Trevino, H.A.; Sather, G.E. Prevalence of selected zoonotic diseases in vertebrates from Haiti, 1972. J. Wildl. Dis. 1979, 15, 327–330. [Google Scholar]
  216. Trofa, A.F.; DeFraites, R.F.; Smoak, B.L.; Kanesa-thasan, N.; King, A.D.; Burrous, J.M.; MacArthy, P.O.; Rossi, C.; Hoke, C.H., Jr. Dengue fever in us military personnel in Haiti. JAMA 1997, 277, 1546–1548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  217. Fischer, M.; Staples, J.E.; Arboviral Diseases Branch, N.C.F.E.; Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, C.D.C. Notes from the field: Chikungunya virus spreads in the Americas—Caribbean and South America, 2013–2014. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2014, 63, 500–501. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  218. White, S.K.; Mavian, C.; Salemi, M.; Morris, J.G., Jr.; Elbadry, M.A.; Okech, B.A.; Lednicky, J.A.; Dunford, J.C. A new "American" subgroup of african-lineage chikungunya virus detected in and isolated from mosquitoes collected in Haiti, 2016. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0196857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  219. Journel, I.; Andrecy, L.L.; Metellus, D.; Pierre, J.S.; Faublas, R.M.; Juin, S.; Dismer, A.M.; Fitter, D.L.; Neptune, D.; Laraque, M.J.; et al. Transmission of zika virus—Haiti, October 12, 2015–September 10, 2016. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2017, 66, 172–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  220. White, S.K.; Lednicky, J.A.; Okech, B.A.; Morris, J.G., Jr.; Dunford, J.C. Spondweni virus in field-caught Culex Quinquefasciatus mosquitoes, Haiti, 2016. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2018, 24, 1765–1767. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  221. Belle, E.A.; King, S.D.; Griffiths, B.B.; Grant, L.S. Epidemiological investigation for arboviruses in Jamaica, west indies. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1980, 29, 667–675. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  222. Belle, E.A.; Grant, L.S.; Griffiths, B.B. The isolation of cache valley virus from mosquitoes in Jamaica. W. Indian Med. J. 1966, 15, 217–220. [Google Scholar]
  223. PAHO-WHO. Number of Reported Cases of Chikungunya Fever in the Americas, by Country or Territory 2013–2014, Epidemiological Week/EW 35. Available online: http://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_topics&view=rdmore&tt=PAHO%2FWHO+Data%2C+Maps+and+Statistics&id=5927&tp=&Itemid=40931&lang=en (accessed on 27 July 2018).
  224. Webster-Kerr, K.R.; Christie, C.; Grant, A.; Chin, D.; Burrowes, H.; Clarke, K.; Wellington, I.; Shaw, K.; De La Haye, W. Emergence of zika virus epidemic and the national response in Jamaica. W. Indian Med. J. 2016, 65, 243–249. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  225. Dupuis, A.P.; Marra, P.P.; Reitsma, R.; Jones, M.J.; Louie, K.L.; Kramer, L.D. Serologic evidence for west nile virus transmission in Puerto Rico and Cuba. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2005, 73, 474–476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  226. Morens, D.M.; Rigau-Perez, J.G.; Lopez-Correa, R.H.; Moore, C.G.; Ruiz-Tiben, E.E.; Sather, G.E.; Chiriboga, J.; Eliason, D.A.; Casta-Velez, A.; Woodall, J.P. Dengue in Puerto Rico, 1977: Public health response to characterize and control an epidemic of multiple serotypes. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1986, 35, 197–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  227. Bennett, S.N.; Drummond, A.J.; Kapan, D.D.; Suchard, M.A.; Munoz-Jordan, J.L.; Pybus, O.G.; Holmes, E.C.; Gubler, D.J. Epidemic dynamics revealed in dengue evolution. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2010, 27, 811–818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  228. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Detection of west Nile virus in blood donations—Puerto Rico, 2007. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2008, 57, 577–580. [Google Scholar]
  229. Thomas, D.L.; Sharp, T.M.; Torres, J.; Armstrong, P.A.; Munoz-Jordan, J.; Ryff, K.R.; Martinez-Quinones, A.; Arias-Berrios, J.; Mayshack, M.; Garayalde, G.J.; et al. Local transmission of zika virus—Puerto Rico, November 23, 2015–January 28, 2016. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2016, 65, 154–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  230. Gubler, D.J. Dengue in the united states, 1981. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. Surveill. Summ. 1983, 32, 23SS–26SS. [Google Scholar]
  231. Matheus, S.; Chappert, J.L.; Cassadou, S.; Berger, F.; Labeau, B.; Bremand, L.; Winicki, A.; Huc-Anais, P.; Quenel, P.; Dussart, P. Virological surveillance of dengue in Saint Martin and saint Barthelemy, French west indies, using blood samples on filter paper. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2012, 86, 159–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  232. Lanciotti, R.S.; Gubler, D.J.; Trent, D.W. Molecular evolution and phylogeny of dengue-4 viruses. J. Gen. Virol. 1997, 78, 2279–2284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  233. Forde, M.S.; Martin, F.; Mitchell, G.; Bidaisee, S. Public health response and lessons learned from the 2014 chikungunya epidemic in Grenada. Rev. Panam. Salud Publica 2017, 41, e57. [Google Scholar]
Table
Table 1. Emergence and distribution of the mosquito-borne viruses in the islands of the Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Caribbean area.
Table 1. Emergence and distribution of the mosquito-borne viruses in the islands of the Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Caribbean area.
AreaArchipelagoIslandDateVirusFamilyGenusOriginRef.Comments/
ProMED ref.
Indian OceanSeychellesSeychelles1977–1978DENV-2Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[25,165]Genbank: L10048
1979CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[38]Neutralizing antibodies, first report in the Indian Ocean
1979SINVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[38]Neutralizing antibodies, first report in the Indian Ocean
2016DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[28]Recent introduction from China
ComorosGrande Comore1948DENVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[166]Probably DENV-1
1984DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[166]
1993DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[166]
2005-2006CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[167]
2007RFVPhenuiviridaePhlebovirusHuman[37]First case in Indian Ocean Islands
Mayotte1943DENVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[24]Unknown serotype
2004RVFPhenuiviridaePhlebovirusLivestock[36]Sporadic cases in livestock
1993DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[168]Probably DENV-1
2005–2006DENVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[169]Unknown serotype
2005–2006CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[170]
2007-2008RFVPhenuiviridaePhlebovirusHuman[36]First autochthonous case
2010DENV-3FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[23,171]
Islands of MascareneLa Réunion1978DENV-2FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[25,26]
2004DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[27]
2005CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[39,40]Introduced from Lamu 2004
2010DENV-3FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[171]
Mauritius1978–1979DENV-2FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[29,30]
2005CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[172]
Maldives IslandsIsland not specified1979DENVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[173]Unknown serotype
Island not specified2004–2005DENVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[31,174]Unknown serotype
Malé2006CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[175]Malé and other islands of the Maldives
Malé2011DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[32,173]Largest epidemic, Malé and other islands of the Maldives
Dhiffushi2015ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[176]
Andaman and Nicobar IslandsIsland not specified1988CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[33]Serological survey
Island not specified1988DENV-2FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[33]Serological survey
Island not specified1988JEVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[33]Serological survey
Island not specified1988WNVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[33]Serological survey
Island not specified1988KFDFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[33]Serological survey
Island not specified1988LGTVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[33]Serological survey
Island not specified2009–2010DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[34]
Island not specified2013DENV-3FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[35]
PacificPolynesiaAmerican Samoa1972DENV-2Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[52]
1975DENV-1Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[52]
1979RRVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman, rat, dog, pig, chicken[177]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuaan[20,41]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[178]
Cook Islands1980RRVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman, pig, dogs, cattle, mosquitoes[179]
2014ZIKVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[151]
ProMED		http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140328.2365267
French Polynesia1967DENV-3Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[180]Tahiti
1971DENV-2Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[181]Tahiti
1975DENV-1Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[182]
1979DENV-4Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[182]
2013ZIKVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[151,183]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[20,41]CHIKV imported into French Polynesia from a traveller returning from Guadeloupe
Hawaii1912DENVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[184]Undetermined serotype
2001DENV-1 FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[43]Traveler returning from French Polynesia
2004–2005JEV, SLEVFlaviviridae FlavivirusResident and migratory birds[185]
2015DENVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[186,187]Undetermined serotype
Samoa2014ZIKVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[183]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[41]
Tokelau2014ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[183]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[41]
Tonga1974DENV-2Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[188]
1975DENV-1Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[182]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[41]
2014ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[183]
Tuvalu1974DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[182]
Wallis and Fatuna Island 1975RRVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[189]
1976DENV-1
DENV-4		FlaviviridaeFlavivirusMosquitoes[190]
Easter Island2014ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[191]
Niue1972DENV-2 FlaviviridaFlavivirusHuman[192]DHF
MicronesiaMarshall Islands1974DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[182]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[193]
Nauru1974DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[182]
Palau1995DENV-4FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[194]
2000DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[42]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[195]Locally acquired
Kiribati1974DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[182]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[195]
Yap Island1995DENV-4FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[196]
2004DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[197]
2007ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[15]
2013CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[198]
ProMED		http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140114.2171369
MelanesiaFiji1943–1944DENVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[199]First report but unknown serotype
1959–1960DENV-2Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[199]
1959–1960DENV-1Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[199]
1959–1960JEVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman, fowls[199]
1979RRVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[46]
ProMED		http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140328.2365267
2015ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[193]
New Caledonia1971DENV-2FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[200]
1975RRVTogaviridaeAlphavirusMosquitoes[189]
1975DENV-1
DENV-4		Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[201]
1979–1980RRVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[202]
1989DENV-3Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[203]
2011CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[204]GenBank: HE806461
2013ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[151]Imported French Polynesia
Vanuatu1975DENV-1
DENV-4		Flaviviridae FlavivirusMosquitoes[182]
1975RRVTogaviridaeAlphavirusMosquitoes[189]
2015ZIKVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHumanProMEDhttp://www.promedmail.org/post/20150501.3334549
Solomon Islands1982DENV-3FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[182]
2015ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[193]
2016DENV-2FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[44]
Papua New Guinea1956–1957MVEFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[205]Serological survey
1963DENV-1Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[206]
1963DENV-2Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[206]
1971SINVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[207]
1989JEVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[208]
2012ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[20]
2012CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[209]
2016DENV-3 FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[44]
CaribbeanLucayanTurks and Caicos Islands 2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[140]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
The Bahamas 2003WNVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[77]Second case in the Caribbean
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[140]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Greater AntillesCayman Islands 2001WNVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[77]First Case of WNV in the Caribbean (August 2001)
http://www.promedmail.org/post/20011016.2538
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[140]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Cuba 1969EEEVTogaviridaeAlphavirusField [62]
1981DENV-2Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[211]This case occurred four years after DENV-1 had been introduced. First case of Dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) in the Americas
2012DENV-4Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[212]DHF
2004WNVFlaviviridae FlavivirusMigratory birds[77]
2005WNVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman, horses[77]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[140]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Dominican Republic2002WNVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHorses, chickens and resident birds[77]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[213]
2015ZIKVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHumanProMEDAccording to PAHO, the first case in the Caribbean emerged in November 2015. This case was reported on May 2015, may be the first Zika case outside of Brazil in the Americas.
http://www.promedmail.org/post/20150605.3412519
Haiti 1969–1971DENV-2Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman, mosquitoes[214]DHF
1972WNV, SLEV, EEEVFlaviviridae, Togaviridae Flavivirus, AlphavirusBirds and bats[215]
1994DENV-1
DENV-4		FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[216]
2013CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[217]
2014–2015MAYVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[66]
2016CHIKVFlaviviridae FlavivirusMosquitoes[218]New ECSA subgroup
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[219]
2016SPONVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusMosquito[220]
Jamaica 1956DENV-2FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[221]
1963DENV-3FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[59]
1962EEEVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[221]
1966CVVPeribunyaviridaeOrthobunyavirusMosquitoes[222]
1960–1975SLEVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[221]
1977DENV-1Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[60]First detection in the Americas, probably from Africa
2002WNVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusBirds[77]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[13,140,223]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[224]
Puerto Rico2004WNVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusMigratory birds[77,225]
1963DENV-3Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[59,226]First virological confirmation of DENV in Puerto Rico
1969DENV-2Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[226]
1977DENV-1FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[226]Second case in the Caribbean
1981DENV-4FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[227]
2007WNVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[228]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[13,140,223]
2015ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[229]
Greater AntillesUS Virgin Islands1981DENV-4FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[230]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[13,223]
ProMED		http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140614.2539532
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
British Virgin Islands2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[13]
ProMED		http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140114.2172714
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Anguilla 1964DENV-3FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[59]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[13,140,223]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Antigua and Barbuda 1964DENV-3FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[59]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHumanProMEDhttp://www.promedmail.org/post/20140427.243388
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Saint Martin 2010–2012DENV-1
DENV-2
DENV-4		Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[231]
2013CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHumanProMEDFirst local transmission in the Western Hemisphere
http://www.promedmail.org/post/20131209.2099940
2016ZIKVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[210]
Saba2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
St Eustatius2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[13,223]
ProMED		http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140922.2794035
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Saint Barthélemy1981DENV-4FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[230]
2010–2012DENV-1
DENV-2		FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[231]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[13,223]
ProMED		http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140102.2148245
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Saint Kitts and Nevis1964DENV-3FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[59]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[13,223]
ProMED		http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140220.229088
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Montserrat2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[223]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Guadeloupe2002WNVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHorses, chickens, resident birds[77]
2013CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[13,223]
ProMED		http://www.promedmail.org/post/20131227.2139145
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Windward IslandsDominica1981DENV-4Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[232]First detection in the Americas, probably introduced from Pacific Islands
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[13,223]
ProMED		http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140118.2181292
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Martinique1964DENV-3FlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[59]
2013CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[13,223]
ProMED		http://www.promedmail.org/post/20131209.209994
2015ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Saint Lucia2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[140]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Saint Vincent and the Gredines2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[140]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Grenada2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[233]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridaeFlavivirusHuman[210]
Barbados2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHumanProMEDhttp://www.promedmail.org/post/20140809.2674777
2016ZIKVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[210]
Trinidad and Tobago1953DENV-2Flaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[56]First introduction to the Americas
1954MAYVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[65]
1955OROVPeribunyaviridaeOrthobunyavirusMosquitoes[69]
1955–1959BSBV, IERIV, LUKVPeribunyaviridaeOrthobunyavirusMosquitoes[70]
1957SLEVFlaviviridae FlavivirusBirds and mosquitoes[71,72]
1962ILHVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[74]
1965RESVPeribunyaviridaeOrthobunyavirusMosquitoes[75]
2004WNVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHorses and birds[77]
2006-2009MADVTogaviridaeAlphavirushorses[73]
2007MUCVTogaviridaeAlphavirusMosquitoes, mammals[64]
2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[140]
2016ZIKVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[210]
Leeward AntillesAruba2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[13]
ProMED		http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140205.2257138
2016ZIKVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[210]
Curaçao2014CHIKVTogaviridaeAlphavirusHuman[13]
ProMED		http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140809.2674777
2016ZIKVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[210]
Bonaire2016ZIKVFlaviviridae FlavivirusHuman[210]
Dengue virus (DENV), Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), Rift Valley fever (RVF), Zika virus (ZIKV), Japanese encephalitis (JEV), West Nile virus (WNV), Kyasanur Forest disease (KFD), Langat virus (LGTV), Ross River virus (RRV), Murray Valley encephalitis (MVE), Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus (EEEV), Saint Louis encephalitis (SLEV), Mayaro virus (MAYV), Oropuche virus (OROV) Cache Valley virus (CVV), Bushbush virus (BSBV), Ieri virus (IERIV), Lukuni virus (LUKV), Ilheus virus (ILHV), Restan virus (RESV), Madariaga virus (MADV), Mucambo virus (MUCV), World Health Organization (WHO).

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Mavian, C.; Dulcey, M.; Munoz, O.; Salemi, M.; Vittor, A.Y.; Capua, I. Islands as Hotspots for Emerging Mosquito-Borne Viruses: A One-Health Perspective. Viruses 2019, 11, 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/v11010011

AMA Style

Mavian C, Dulcey M, Munoz O, Salemi M, Vittor AY, Capua I. Islands as Hotspots for Emerging Mosquito-Borne Viruses: A One-Health Perspective. Viruses. 2019; 11(1):11. https://doi.org/10.3390/v11010011

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mavian, Carla, Melissa Dulcey, Olga Munoz, Marco Salemi, Amy Y. Vittor, and Ilaria Capua. 2019. "Islands as Hotspots for Emerging Mosquito-Borne Viruses: A One-Health Perspective" Viruses 11, no. 1: 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/v11010011

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop