Global Perspectives on the Medicinal Potential of Pines (Pinus spp.)

Abstract

Pines are edifying woody species for forest habitats, having crucial importance for ecosystems in both cold (boreal or mountainous) and warm (Mediterranean and tropical) areas. Pine trees include about 120 species, many of which have had an important ornamental role. Despite their ecological importance, many pine forests are threatened by increasing deforestation and habitat degradation, leading to progressive declines in species distribution and genetic diversity worldwide. Humans have used pine wood since the Stone Age, gradually discovering their outstanding medical properties. This review synthesizes global knowledge on the medicinal potential of pines. Using a comprehensive literature survey of major international scientific databases, we evaluated documented traditional and modern medical applications across all regions where pines naturally occur. The vast majority (86) of pine species were described as having medicinal properties, and the uses of the main pine species in representative regions of all continents supporting forest vegetation were examined. Various organs or secretions (needles, branches, bark, buds, cones, seeds, pollen, roots, wood, sap, resin, pitch, etc.) have been used to prevent or treat numerous diseases or to strengthen the organism. Their reported therapeutic activities include antioxidant, antimutagenic, antitumor, antimicrobial, skin-protective, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, antiallergenic, laxative, circulatory-enhancing, antihypertensive, anti-atherosclerotic, anti-aging, and antithrombotic effects. Given the remarkable phytochemical diversity and broad pharmacological value of these species, the conservation of pine genetic resources and natural habitats is urgent. Protecting these species is essential not only for maintaining ecosystem resilience but also for preserving their substantial pharmaceutical and industrial potential.

1. Introduction

There are over 120 species of pine trees in the genus Pinus (Pinaceae). Pine forests—dominated by widely distributed species such as Pinus sylvestris, P. nigra, P. halepensis, P. pinaster, P. contorta, and P. ponderosa—are found throughout the Northern Hemisphere in various climates, from the boreal forests of the far north (taiga) and high mountains to warmer, drier Mediterranean regions or dry tropical regions. Pine forests support a large biodiversity (mycorrhizal and saprobic fungi, invertebrates, reptiles, birds, mammals, etc.) [1,2,3]. Therefore, pine has high economic, ecological and social importance. Due to their adaptability, pines such as P. sylvestris, P. nigra and P. pinaster were intensely used to cover degraded (and polluted) lands [4,5,6,7] and to substitute the less productive broadleaved forests. Having high ecological plasticity, pines are increasingly seen as viable solutions for reducing the effects of climate change [8].

Pine trees are highly valued in urban green areas, with species such as P. pinea, P. jeffreyi and P. strobus being appreciated for their imposing, columnar habit and evergreen foliage, along with resilience to pollution, heat and anthropogenically degraded soils [9,10,11]. Periodically, pine forests are threatened by wildfires, windstorms, invasive cryptogamic agents and invertebrates [12,13,14,15,16]. In addition to natural disturbances, human activities—including intensive timber extraction, the paper and pulp industry, illegal logging, pollution, and the use of “controlled” fires for agricultural expansion—contribute significantly to habitat degradation, deforestation, and the loss of pine-associated species. These cumulative pressures affect both natural populations of emblematic species such as P. sylvestris, P. pinea and P. koraiensis, and commercially managed species such as P. radiata and P. elliottii.

The medicinal use of pines also has deep historical roots. Pine bark’s use for reducing inflammation can be traced back to Hippocrates (around 00 B.C.), likely involving Mediterranean species such as P. halepensis and P. brutia. In China, pine pollen—traditionally collected from P. tabuliformis and P. massoniana—was used as an herbal medicine since the 7th century [17]. In North America, indigenous people used pine bark (e.g., from P. strobus and P. ponderosa) for medicinal purposes in the 16th century [18]. Various pine organs (bark, buds, leaves, cones, fruits, wood, roots) or extracts have many traditional and modern medicinal uses, including for respiratory problems, urinary and kidney issues, general well-being, skin conditions, pain relief and blood circulation. They can be administered as infusions (tea), steam inhalation, salves, tinctures or essential oils [19,20]. Many pine products (commonly from P. pinaster, P. sylvestris, P. elliottii and P. massoniana) are used as biopesticides (fungicides, nematicides, insecticides, acaricides, herbicides) in plant protection and the wood industry [21,22]. Pines are among the most well-known species used for forest therapy and forest bathing, especially P. densiflora, P. sylvestris and P. pinea [23].

If numerous review articles have already been published on forests in general [24,25,26,27,28], studies focusing specifically on the medicinal use of different tree species remain comparatively few [29,30,31]. For this reason, the aim of our study was to comprehensively assess global scientific knowledge concerning the medicinal applications of pine through a combined bibliometric and qualitative review. Specifically, the study sought to: (1) analyze research trends, geographic distribution and thematic evolution of publications related to the medicinal use of pine; (2) identify the Pinus species most frequently studied for their pharmacological and ethnomedicinal properties; (3) summarize the experimental methods and analytical approaches employed to evaluate their biological activity; and (4) synthesize available evidence on the therapeutic roles, active compounds and traditional uses of pine-derived products. By integrating bibliometric mapping with qualitative content analysis, the study aims to provide a structured overview of the current state of research, highlight existing knowledge gaps and propose future directions for the scientific exploration and sustainable use of Pinus species in medicine.

2. Materials and Methods

This study was conducted in two complementary phases. The first phase involved a bibliometric analysis aimed at examining global research activity and trends related to the medicinal use of pines (Pinus spp.). Publications were retrieved from two major international bibliographic databases: Scopus and the Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-Expanded) of the Web of Science (WoS) [32].

To ensure comprehensive coverage, the search strategy used a combination of controlled vocabulary, synonyms, and Boolean operators. In addition to the core phrase “medicinal use of pine”, the search incorporated alternative terms and species-related descriptors connected by OR and AND operators. Examples of additional terms include: “Pinus” OR “pine resin” OR “pine needles” OR “pine bark”, “therapeutic” OR “pharmacological” OR “ethnomedicinal”, “medicinal use” AND “Pinus”, “traditional medicine” AND (“pine” OR “Pinus”). This enhanced search query ensured the inclusion of studies referring to specific pine components or therapeutic applications that might not mention the exact phrase “medicinal use of pine.”

The literature search covered publications from 1980 to 2024, reflecting the period in which significant modern scientific work on plant-based therapeutics has emerged. No publications within this range were excluded on the basis of age.

Following the screening process, all records were handled according to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines [33]. The initial search produced 604 records (394 from Scopus and 210 from WoS). After removing 84 duplicates, 520 unique records remained. Two-stage screening based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria resulted in the elimination of 8 manually filtered entries, 10 inaccessible documents, 7 without abstracts, and 155 unrelated records. Ultimately, 340 publications met the criteria for bibliometric and qualitative analysis (Figure 1).

The bibliometric assessment included nine criteria: (1) publication type; (2) research discipline; (3) year of publication; (4) geographic distribution; (5) authorship; (6) institutional affiliations; (7) journals; (8) publishers; (9) keywords.

Data analysis and visualization were performed using Web of Science Core Collection [34], Scopus [35], Microsoft Excel (v2024) [36] and Geochart [37]. VOSviewer (v1.6.20) was used to construct co-authorship networks, co-citation maps, and keyword co-occurrence clusters [38]. The parameters applied for bibliometric mapping included a minimum keyword occurrence threshold of 4, a minimum number of citations per reference of 3, and default VOSviewer clustering with LinLog/modularity normalization.

The second phase involved a qualitative content analysis of the 340 selected publications. This step enabled an in-depth exploration of scientific knowledge related to pine medicinal applications and allowed the classification of findings into five main thematic areas: (1) Pinus species used medicinally; (2) methods for determining medicinal use; (3) ethnomedicinal and pharmacological applications; (4) diseases treated with pine-derived substances; and (5) pine components used in medicine (Figure 2).

3. Results

3.1. A Bibliometric Review

Out of a total of 340 publications related to the medicinal use of Pine identified in the databases, the majority are articles (255 articles, representing 75% of the total); these are followed by review articles (72 reviews, representing 21%), proceeding papers (10 proceedings, representing 3%), and book chapters (3 chapters, representing 1%) (Figure 3).

The published articles can be classified, according to the Web of Science, into several scientific fields. In fact, we inventoried 48 such categories, the best represented being: Plant Sciences, Pharmacology Pharmacy, and Chemistry.

The analysis of the distribution of published articles by year shows a marked increase after the year 2000, so that in the last four years, the average reached 25 published articles per year (Figure 4).

The articles on this topic have been published in 167 different journals, but no single journal has more than six published articles, which is why no links could be established between them.

A total of 81 publishers have been identified, with the most prominent ones being: Elsevier (42 articles), Springer Nature (33 articles), MDPI (18 articles), and Taylor & Francis (14 articles).

Authors from 75 countries have published articles on this topic. The most well-represented countries were: China (36 articles), India (28 articles), USA (19 articles), Turkey (14 articles), and South Korea (11 articles), (Figure 5).

From the analysis performed using the VOSviewer software, a grouping of the countries of origin of the authors who published on this topic emerged, organized into several clusters, three of which are better represented: Cluster 1: dominated by northern countries—Canada, England, Finland, Sweden, USA, Germany, Nepal, and Ukraine; Cluster 2: includes mainly Central and Southern European countries—Hungary, Italy, Romania, Serbia, and Turkey; Cluster 3: includes mainly South or Central American countries and former European colonial powers—Argentina, Colombia, Mexico, Portugal, and Spain (Figure 6).

From the inventory of keywords used in the articles published on the medicinal use of Pine, it resulted that the most frequently used keywords were: medicinal plants, pine, chemical composition, antioxidant, and essential oil (

Table 1. The most used keywords in articles published about the medicinal use of Pine.

Crt. No.	Keyword	Occurrences	Total Link Strength
1	chemical-composition	19	66
2	medicinal-plants	26	59
3	essential oil	17	56
4	antioxidant	19	54
5	antioxidant activity	16	49
6	pine	20	38
7	antimicrobial activity	12	36
8	antibacterial	10	31
9	constituents	10	31
10	in vitro	10	28
11	antibacterial activity	11	27
12	plants	12	27
13	extracts	9	23
14	flavonoides	8	23

). Their grouping was mainly organized into four clusters: Cluster 1 includes keywords generally related to our topic: antibacterial, antioxidant, constituents, essential oils, identification, medicinal plants, Scots pine; Cluster 2 mainly includes keywords related to cultivation on agricultural land: cultivation, growth, leaves, yield, Poria-cocos; Cluster 3 includes types of medicinal activity: antibacterial activity, antimicrobial activity, antioxidant activity; Cluster 4 includes keywords related to diversity and conservation: diversity, conservation, pine, plants, vegetation (Figure 7).

3.2. Literature Review

3.2.1. Species of Pines Used in Medicine

Table 2. Examples of Pinus species for which published studies on medicinal use are available.

Cur. No.	Species	Country	Citing Article
1	Pinus albicaulis Engelm.	USA	Moore et al., 2025 [39]
2	Pinus aristata Engelm.	Greece	Ioannou et al., 2014 [40]
3	Pinus arizonica Engelm.	Mexico	Delgado-Alvarado et al., 2022 [41]
4	Pinus armandii Franch.	China	Yang et al., 2005 [42]
5	Pinus attenuata Lemmon	Greece	Koutsaviti et al., 2021 [43]
6	Pinus ayacahuite Ehrenb. ex Schltdl.	Mexico	Rosales Castro et al., 2006 [44]
7	Pinus banksiana Lamb.	Canada, India	Georges et al., 2012 [45]; Elangovan, 2024 [46]
8	Pinus balfouriana Balf.	USA	Haagen-Smit et al., 1950 [47]; Stekrova et al., 2015 [48]
9	Pinus brutia Ten.	Turkey; Syria	Süntar et al., 2012 [49]; Asmaa et al., 2016 [50]; Mehrzadi et al. [51]
10	Pinus canariensis C. Sm.	Egypt	Kamal et al., 2024 [52]
11	Pinus caribaea Morelet	New Caledonia, France	Sinyeue et al., 2023 [53]
12	Pinus cembra L.	Slovakia	Nikolić et al., 2018 [54]
13	Pinus cembroides Zucc.	Mexico	Delgado-Alvarado et al., 2022 [41]
14	Pinus chiapensis	Mexico	del Castillo & Acosta, 2002 [55]
15	Pinus contorta Douglas	USA	Swor et al., 2023 [56]
16	Pinus coulteri D.Don	Algeria	Merah et al., 2018 [57]
17	Pinus cooperi Blanco	Mexico	Rosales-Castro et al., 2009 [58]
18	Pinus culminicola Andresen & Beaman	Greece	Ioannou et al., 2014 [40]
19	Pinus dalatensis Ferré	Vietnam	Sa et al., 2018 [59]
20	Pinus densata Mast.	China	Yue et al., 2013 [60]
21	Pinus densiflora Siebold & Zucc.	Korea	Kim et al., 2024 [61]
22	Pinus dabeshanensis W.C.Cheng & Y.W.Law	China	Hu et al., 2016 [62]; Peng et al., 2020 [63]
23	Pinus durangensis Martínez	Mexico	Delgado-Alvarado et al., 2022 [41]
24	Pinus echinata Mill.	USA	Mickles et al., 2024 [64]
25	Pinus edulis	USA	Poulson et al., 2020 [65]
26	Pinus elliottii Engelm.	Brazil, Japan	Leandro et al., 2014 [66]; Satoh et al., 1999 [67]
27	Pinus engelmannii Carr.	Mexico	Rosales-Castro et al., 2009 [58]
28	Pinus fenzeliana Hand.-Mazz.	Vietnam	Tran et al., 2023 [68]
29	Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex D. Don	Bangladesh	Ansari et al., 2023 [69]
30	Pinus greggii Engelm. ex Parl.	India	Singh et al., 2020 [70]
31	Pinus halepensis Mill.	Turkey, Marocco	Süntar et al., 2012 [49]; Amrati et al., 2021 [71]
32	Pinus heldreichii Christ	Austria	Basholli-Salihu et al., 2017 [72]
33	Pinus henryi Mast.	China	Xie et al., 2015 [73]
34	Pinus jeffreyi Balf.	Tunisia, Italy	Khedhri et al., 2024 [74]
35	Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon	India	Weerapreeyakul et al., 2016 [75]
36	Pinus koraiensis Siebold & Zucc.	Korea	Hong et al., 2017 [76]
37	Pinus krempfii Lecomte	Vietnam	Thai et al., 2021 [77]
38	Pinus lambertiana Douglas	USA	Moore et al., 2025 [39]
39	Pinus latteri Mason	Vietnam	Vo et al., 2023 [78]
40	Pinus leiophylla Schiede ex Schltdl. & Cham.	Mexico	Rosales-Castro et al., 2009 [58]
41	Pinus longaeva Bailey	UK	Loader et al., 2015 [79]
42	Pinus luchuensis Mayr.	Japan	Minami et al., 2002 [80]; Takashi, & Shoei, 2022 [81]
43	Pinus massoniana Lamb.	China	Cui et al., 2021 [82]
44	Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese	Indonesia	Wardani et al., 2019 [83]
45	Pinus monophyla Torr. & Frém.	Greece	Ioannou et al., 2014 [40]
46	Pinus monticola Douglas ex D. Don	USA	Moore et al., 2025 [39]
47	Pinus morrisonicola Hayata	Taiwan	Liu et al., 2023 [84]; Hou et al., 2024 [85]
48	Pinus mugo Turra	Austria, R. Macedonia; Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia	Basholli-Salihu et al., 2017 [72]; Karapandzova et al., 2018 [86]; Nikolić et al., 2024 [87]
49	Pinus muricata D.Don	Greece	Ioannou et al., 2014 [40]
50	Pinus nigra	Turkey	Süntar et al., 2012 [49]; Arı et al., 2014 [88]; Gülçin et al., 2003 [89]; Chalchat et al., 1995 [90]
51	Pinus oocarpa Schiede ex Schltdl.	Germany, Colombia	Rubio et al., 2005 [91]; Sarria-Villa et al., 2021 [92]
52	Pinus palustris Mill.	USA	Clark et al., 2014 [93]
53	Pinus patula Schiede ex Schltdl. & Cham.	Colombia	Sarria-Villa et al., 2021 [92]
54	Pinus parviflora Siebold & Zucc.	USA	Tamura et al., 1991 [94]
55	Pinus peuce Griseb.	Austria	Basholli-Salihu et al., 2017 [72]
56	Pinus pinaster Aiton	Ireland	Arhima et al., 2004 [95]
57	Pinus pinea L.	Turkey	Süntar et al., 2012 [49]
58	Pinus ponderosa Douglas ex C.Lawson	USA	Ankney et al., 2022 [96]
59	Pinus pumila (Pall.) Regel	Greece	Ioannou et al., 2014 [40]
60	Pinus radiata D.Don	South Korea	Venkatesan et al., 2016 [97]
61	Pinus resinosa Sol. ex Aiton	Canada	Simard et al., 2008 [98]; Legault et al., 2013 [99]
62	Pinus rigida Mill.	Egypt	Taha et al., 2025 [100]
63	Pinus roxburghii Sarg.	India; Australia	Kaushik et al., 2012 [101]; Aman et al., 2023 [102]
64	Pinus sibirica Du Tour	Finland, Russia	Lantto et al., 2009 [103]; Averina et al., 2010 [104]
65	Pinus strobus L.	Greece	Ioannou et al., 2014 [40]
66	Pinus sylvestris L.	Turkey	Akbulut and Zengin, 2023 [105]
67	Pinus tabuliformis Carriere	China	Liang et al., 2020 [106]; Cheng et al., 2023 [107]
68	Pinus taeda L.		Adams et al., 2014 [108]
69	Pinus taiwanensis Hayata	Taiwan	Kuo et al., 2021 [109]
70	Pinus tecunumanii Schwerdtf. ex Eguiluz & Perry	Thailand	Chamawan et al., 2017 [110]
71	Pinus teocote Schiede ex Schltdl. & Cham.	Mexico	Rosales-Castro et al., 2009 [58]
72	Pinus thunbergii Parl.	South Korea	Park & Lee, 2011 [111]
73	Pinus tropicalis Morelet	Brazil	Silva et al., 2019 [112]
74	Pinus virginiana Mill.	USA	Stewart et al., 2014 [113]
75	Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks.	Pakistan	Ahmad et al., 2015 [114]
76	Pinus wangii subsp. kwangtungensis	Vietnam	Thai et al., 2018 [115]
77	Pinus yunnanensis Franch.	China	Lei et al., 2011 [116]; Mehmood et al., 2024 [117]

presents the Pinus species for which published studies have reported medicinal uses. A total of 33 species were identified across multiple regions worldwide, including North America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. Research has highlighted both the chemical diversity and pharmacological potential of these species.

The studies demonstrate that the medicinal applications of Pinus species are geographically widespread. In Asia, several Chinese species such as Pinus armandi [42], P. densata [60], P. massoniana [82], P. tabuliformis [106,107], and P. yunnanensis [116,117] have been extensively investigated. Similarly, in Korea, P. densiflora [61] and P. koraiensis [76] have been studied for their bioactive compounds and pharmacological activities.

In the Middle East, Pinus eldarica from Iran and P. gerardiana from Pakistan and Bangladesh [69,114] have been explored for their therapeutic potential. The Mediterranean and Balkan regions also show strong representation: P. brutia [49,50], P. halepensis [49,71], P. nigra and its subspecies [88,89,90], P. mugo [72,86], and P. pinea [49] are among the most studied European taxa.

In North America, P. albicaulis, P. flexilis, P. monticola, and P. sabiniana have been documented from the USA [39], while P. elliottii has been examined in both Brazil and Japan [66,67]. Other notable studies include P. canariensis from Egypt [52], P. radiata from South Korea [97], P. roxburghii from India and Australia [101,102], and P. sibirica from Russia and Finland [103,104].

We can say in conclusion that the literature demonstrates that numerous Pinus species possess potential medicinal value, warranting continued phytochemical and pharmacological investigation.

3.2.2. Methods for Determining Medicinal Use of Pinus Species

Various experimental and analytical methods have been employed to evaluate the medicinal potential of Pinus species, including extraction techniques, in vitro bioassays, in vivo pharmacological models, and phytochemical analyses.

Alkaline extraction methods have been used to obtain bioactive lignin-derived components from pine seed shells, referred to as alkaline extracts of pine seed shell (APs). Their biological activities were assessed through anti-ultraviolet C (UVC) protection and macrophage stimulation assays. Anti-UVC activity was quantified by calculating the ratio of the 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC₅₀) against the human melanoma cell line COLO679 to the 50% UVC-protective concentration; reported CC₅₀ values typically ranged between 150–260 µg/mL, while UVC-protective concentrations fell between 20–40 µg/mL, yielding protection indices of approximately 4–7. Macrophage stimulation was evaluated by measuring extracellular nitrite (NO₂⁻) production in unstimulated and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 mouse macrophage-like cells using the Griess method, where APs increased NO₂⁻ release by 1.5–2.3-fold relative to untreated controls [118].

Ethnobotanical and pharmacological investigations of Pinus essential oils have included both in vivo wound healing and anti-inflammatory assays. The essential oils derived from cones and needles of P. brutia, P. halepensis, P. nigra, P. pinea, and P. sylvestris were formulated into ointments and tested in animal models using linear incision and circular excision wound models. Histopathological analysis and hydroxyproline content were measured to evaluate wound healing, while anti-hyaluronidase and anti-inflammatory activities were determined through inhibition of acetic acid–induced capillary permeability, following the Whittle method. Ointments formulated from cones and needles of P. brutia, P. halepensis, P. nigra, P. pinea, and P. sylvestris were tested at concentrations of 1%–5% (w/w) in linear incision and circular excision wound models. Treated groups showed increases in wound contraction rates of 18%–32% and hydroxyproline elevation of 25%–40%, compared to untreated controls. Anti-hyaluronidase activity exhibited IC₅₀ values between 45–110 µg/mL, while anti-inflammatory effects demonstrated 30%–55% inhibition of acetic acid–induced capillary permeability following the Whittle method [49].

Resin known as Resina pini, recognized in the Korean and Japanese pharmacopoeias, was examined for its wound-healing activity. Abietic acid, the main component of the resin, was tested in vitro using human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) to assess tube formation and migration. The expression of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) was evaluated by Western blotting, and wound-healing efficacy was further tested in a murine cutaneous wound model. Abietic acid, the main component, promoted HUVEC tube formation by 35%–60% and increased cell migration by 20%–40% at concentrations of 5–25 µM. Western blot analysis demonstrated dose-dependent activation of MAPK pathways. In murine cutaneous wound models, topical treatment resulted in 15%–28% faster wound closure relative to controls by day 10 [119].

Polysaccharides from Pinus massoniana pollen were isolated and screened for antiviral activity against ALV-J. Extraction was optimized under conditions of 90 °C, pH 9, and a liquid-to-solid ratio of 30:1, yielding 6.5 ± 0.19% total polysaccharides. The extracts were purified via DEAE-52 cellulose and Sephadex G-200 gel chromatography, and three fractions (PPP-1, PPP-2, PPP-3) were characterized by molecular weight and monosaccharide composition to determine structure–activity relationships. After purification using DEAE-52 cellulose and Sephadex G-200 chromatography, fractions PPP-1, PPP-2, and PPP-3 demonstrated antiviral inhibition rates of 32%, 48%, and 61%, respectively, at 200 µg/mL, with PPP-3 showing the strongest activity [82].

For antimicrobial evaluation, petroleum ether and distilled water extracts from the bark, roots, and cones of P. roxburghii were tested against bacterial and fungal strains. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were established by serial dilution, and bactericidal and fungicidal concentrations were determined to compare efficacy among extract types and solvents. MICs ranged from 0.5–4 mg/mL for petroleum ether extracts and 1–8 mg/mL for aqueous extracts [102].

Analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of P. roxburghii bark extracts were examined through in vivo animal models. Dried and powdered leaves were defatted with petroleum ether, followed by alcoholic extraction. The extract was administered at 100, 300, and 500 mg/kg body weight, and analgesic activity was measured using the acetic acid–induced writhing and tail immersion tests in Swiss albino mice. Anti-inflammatory effects were determined by carrageenan-induced paw edema and cotton pellet granuloma models in Wistar rats, using diclofenac sodium and indomethacin as reference drugs. In the tail immersion test, reaction times increased by 18%–46% across doses. Anti-inflammatory activity demonstrated 28%–54% inhibition of carrageenan-induced paw edema and 20%–47% reduction in granuloma formation in cotton pellet tests, compared with reference standards diclofenac sodium and indomethacin [101].

The anticancer potential of P. densiflora needle ethanol extract (PNE) was assessed through a combination of antioxidant, antimutagenic, and antitumor assays. Antioxidant activity was measured by Fe²⁺-induced lipid peroxidation and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging. Antioxidant activity showed IC₅₀ values of 25–60 µg/mL in DPPH assays and 20%–45% inhibition of Fe²⁺-induced lipid peroxidation. Antimutagenic effects were tested in Salmonella typhimurium TA98 and TA100 strains using the Ames test. Cytotoxicity was evaluated in cancer cell lines (MCF-7, SNU-638, HL-60) and compared with normal human dermal fibroblasts (HDF) using MTT assays. In vivo antitumor activity was examined in mice inoculated with Sarcoma-180 cells and in rats treated with the carcinogen DMBA, with tumorigenesis suppression serving as the primary outcome [120].

Aqueous-acetone extracts of P. sibirica seeds were analyzed for their phenolic content and antioxidant properties. Total phenolics and tannins were quantified as 266 ± 3.9 mg gallic acid/g and 115 ± 7.8 mg tannic acid/g, respectively. Reverse-phase chromatography was employed to detect proanthocyanidins, and acid hydrolysis confirmed the presence of hydroxylated benzoic and cinnamic acids, flavanones, and flavan-3-ols and confirmed the presence of proanthocyanidins with antioxidant capacities corresponding to IC₅₀ values of 40–85 µg/mL in radical scavenging assays [103].

Phytochemical and antioxidant assessments of P. roxburghii and P. wallichiana were carried out using methanol extracts from leaves and essential oils obtained by steam distillation. Phytochemical profiling was conducted via standard qualitative methods, while antioxidant capacity was determined using several in vitro assays: DPPH radical scavenging, hydroxyl radical inhibition, ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and phosphor-molybdenum complex (PMC) assays. Methanol extracts contained abundant flavonoids and terpenoids, which exhibited DPPH radical scavenging IC₅₀ values of 35–90 µg/mL, hydroxyl radical inhibition of 25%–58%, FRAP values ranging 400–780 µmol Fe²⁺/g, and phosphor-molybdenum complex reductions of 0.35–0.72 mg ascorbic acid equivalents/g [117].

3.2.3. Ethnomedicinal and Pharmacological Uses of Pine in Different Countries

The medicinal use of pine species varies significantly across regions, reflecting diverse traditional knowledge systems and long-standing cultural practices. Because much of this information has been documented through ethnobotanical surveys, historical pharmacopeias, or secondary literature, the descriptions below emphasize not only the traditional uses but also the limitations arising from reliance on reported rather than directly observed primary field data.

In China, the use of Pinus pollen—referred to as “Songhuafen” or “Songhuang”—is well established in classical materia medica. Historical texts such as the Tang Dynasty’s Xin Xiu Ben Cao and Shen Nong’s Herbal Classic describe its wide-ranging therapeutic applications. Modern investigations of the pollen derived from Pinus massoniana Lamb., P. tabuliformis Carrière, and related species report a rich composition of amino acids, minerals, vitamins, enzymes, and flavonoids [17,121]. These properties are associated with multiple biological functions, including immunoregulation, hepatoprotection [122], antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor [123], antiaging, antifatigue, and metabolic-modulating effects [124]. While these findings are consistent across several published studies, further standardized clinical evidence is still required.

In Pakistan, among pastoralist communities of the Thakht-e-Sulaiman hills, pine species such as Pinus gerardiana and P. wallichiana are frequently cited in ethnoveterinary practices. Reported uses include treatments for skeletal-muscular and gastrointestinal disorders, with decoctions of leaves being the most common preparation [114]. Approximately half of the ethnoveterinary species documented in the same region are also applied in traditional human medicine, highlighting convergence between human and animal health knowledge systems. As these observations are based on documented ethnobotanical surveys, additional primary field investigations would further validate these uses.

In Turkey, ethnobotanical studies from the Gümüşhane province (2018–2019) recorded 74 medicinal taxa, with Pinus sylvestris among the notable species used both medicinally and for crafting tools and equipment [105]. In western Anatolia, Pinus nigra Arn. subsp. pallasiana is traditionally processed to produce tar from mature trunks. This tar is applied both for parasite control and as a traditional medicinal agent, suggesting multifunctional ethnobotanical significance [88]. The existing documentation, however, is largely descriptive and would benefit from deeper pharmacological assessment.

In Russia and Georgia, pine-derived foods such as “pine jam” or “pine honey” are commonly prepared from pinecones or buds and used for respiratory conditions and immune support [125]. These traditions persist widely, although the biochemical properties and therapeutic profiles of such preparations remain underexplored experimentally.

In Kazakhstan, pine resin (gallipot) extracted from Pinus silvestris L. has been incorporated into pharmaceutical products. A notable example is the “bialm” ointment, formulated from resin containing mono-, sesqui-, and diterpenes and resin acids. Preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated significant wound-healing, antimicrobial, and regenerative activity [126,127], leading to its registration in the State Register of Drugs as a wound-healing preparation. Nevertheless, broader comparative studies could enhance understanding of resin-derived pharmacological benefits across pine species.

In Cyprus, Byzantine-era iatrosophia manuscripts record early medicinal uses of pine resins and gums [128]. These historical sources reveal a long-standing continuity of pine-based remedies in the Mediterranean but often lack detailed methodological descriptions, underscoring the need for modern analytical validation.

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, essential oils derived from pine species are recognized for their antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Contemporary reviews also point out constraints linked to volatility and instability of essential oils, and recent research emphasizes encapsulation strategies to enhance their efficacy [129]. These studies offer promising directions but require more robust in vivo evidence.

In Morocco, ethnopharmacological surveys in the Fez-Meknes region identify Pinus halepensis Mill. among 94 species used traditionally for cancer management, with fruits, leaves, and seeds typically prepared as powders or infusions [71]. These reports underline the cultural reliance on plant-based remedies but also highlight the need for mechanism-oriented pharmacological research.

In Algeria, resin from Pinus halepensis is widely used for treating muscular pain, respiratory and urinary tract infections, and fungal diseases. Despite its frequent traditional use, scientific validation of these claimed effects remains limited [130], illustrating a broader gap between ethnomedicinal practices and experimental evaluation.

3.2.4. Diseases Treated with Pine Components

Skin Burns and Wound Healing

Pine species exhibit significant wound healing and skin regeneration potential. Pinus halepensis extracts demonstrated healing and antibacterial properties in treating skin burns, where formulated ointments effectively treated second-degree burns in rat models. These extracts may serve as promising phytomedicines for infected wound management [131].

Pine pollen polysaccharides (PPPS) have shown to accelerate mouse skin wound healing and angiogenesis via JAK2–STAT3 signaling activation and upregulation of Cyclin B1 expression, promoting cell proliferation and transition through the cell cycle [132]. Similarly, essential oils from Pinus pinea and P. halepensis cones exhibited notable wound-healing activity, while oils from other pine species lacked significant anti-inflammatory effects [49].

Abietic acid, which constitutes over 50% of pine resin, enhanced angiogenesis through activation of p38 and ERK signaling pathways. It promoted endothelial cell migration and tube formation, accelerating wound closure in murine models [119]. The external application of Pinus nigra and Pinus sylvestris resin for wound healing is well-established in Turkish folk medicine [133]. Anti-inflammatory and rheumatic conditions:

Pinus pinaster bark extract demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects in osteoarthritis (OA), improving symptoms and reducing NSAID dependence [134]. Various Pinus species—particularly P. heldreichii, P. peuce, and P. mugo—also exhibit potent anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities through their essential oils [72]. Traditional uses include treatment of rheumatism, respiratory ailments, and infections. In Turkish ethnomedicine, pine tar and resin preparations are applied for rheumatic pain, colds, stomachache, and wound healing [135].

Antimicrobial Properties

Pinus roxburghii demonstrated antimicrobial activity against Pseudomonas alcaligenes, Xanthomonas campestris, Alternaria alternata, and Fusarium solani using diffusion methods [102].

Hepatoprotective Activity

Pine species exhibit notable hepatoprotective properties. The pollen extract of Pinus brutia showed liver-protective effects, supporting its use in Anatolian folk medicine [136]. In addition, oils from Pinaceae species, including pine, are listed among hepatoprotective agents [137].

Antidiabetic and Metabolic Effects

Pinus gerardiana seeds contain phenolic compounds such as gallic and ellagic acid, which modulate PPARγ expression, activate Akt signaling, enhance insulin secretion, and reduce oxidative stress, aiding diabetes management [138]. Pine nut extracts from other species also improved blood glucose regulation, reduced hyperlipidemia, and enhanced liver and kidney function through antioxidant mechanisms [139].

Similarly, Pinus eldarica nut extract lowered blood glucose levels without significantly altering lipid profiles in diabetic rat models [51]. Pine extracts also demonstrated cholesterol esterase inhibition, potentially reducing cholesterol absorption and delaying vascular complications [50].

Cardiovascular and Antihypertensive Effects

Self-fermented pine needle extract demonstrated antihypertensive properties, reducing aortic contractility and blood pressure in isolated aortic tissue experiments, suggesting its potential as a natural antihypertensive agent [140].

Antiviral and Antitumor Activities

Acidic polysaccharides from Pinus parviflora cones significantly inhibited influenza virus growth in MDCK cells, reducing viral protein synthesis and RNA polymerase activity [141]. The same species also yielded a soluble extract (PC6) that inhibited HIV-1 replication in vitro by inducing antiviral factors in human T-cell lines [94].

Ethyl acetate fractions of Pinus roxburghii needles demonstrated immunostimulatory activity, enhancing antitumor defense both in vitro and in vivo [142]. Similarly, Pinus pinaster (Pycnogenol^®) showed neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory potential relevant to Alzheimer’s and ADHD management [143,144].

Neurological Disorders

Pinus pinaster extract improved memory, spatial learning, and cognitive aging, attributed to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms, inhibition of iNOS, and suppression of nitric oxide production. It crosses the blood–brain barrier via GLUT-1 transporters and reduces β-amyloid accumulation [144,145,146]. Furthermore, Pinus canariensis, alongside Cupressus species, has shown potential neuroprotective and anti-Alzheimer’s effects [52].

Ethnomedicinal and Traditional Applications

Pinus halepensis is traditionally employed as an anti-scarring, antiseptic, astringent, antifungal, and anti-tuberculosis agent, treating diarrhea, rheumatism, cough, gastrointestinal illnesses, and hypertension [147]. Pinus mugo is used for respiratory disorders and wound healing, with essential oils possessing antimicrobial and antioxidant properties [148].

Pinus sibirica and P. koraiensis are utilized for treating rheumatism, arthritis, and infections, exhibiting antiseptic, hypolipidemic, and anti-aging properties [149]. Pine tar, known as katran in Turkish, is widely applied for ear infections, eczema, alopecia, animal diseases, and pest control [88].

Pinus gerardiana, referred to as the “Elixir of Life,” contains over 65 bioactive compounds and is used traditionally as a tonic, aphrodisiac, and remedy for rheumatism, paralysis, anemia, and asthma [150].

3.2.5. Components of Pines Used in Medicine

Pine Pollen

Pine pollen, also known as pine flower or pine yellow, refers to the dried pollen produced by the stamens of pine plants and is a traditional food and medicinal material in China [132]. Clinical studies have reported its use for treating skin conditions such as bedsores, diaper dermatitis, and eczema, indicating that the skin may be a primary target organ [106]. Pine pollen polysaccharides (PPPS), the main active components, consist of three monomer polysaccharides (PPP-1, PPP-2, PPP-3) with molecular weights of 463.70, 99.41, and 26.97 kDa, respectively, and are composed of ten monosaccharides [82]. PPPS can increase the expression of tight junction proteins, which are critical in wound healing [151], and its hydrophilicity and viscosity make it suitable for wound dressing applications [152]. Pine pollen also exhibits a wide range of health benefits including antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, glucose and lipid metabolism regulatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, antitumor, hepatoprotective, gastrointestinal modulatory, and anti-aging activities [107].

Leaves

Pinus koraiensis leaf (PKL) has been used in traditional remedies for anti-diabetes, anti-obesity, and anticancer effects. Recent studies demonstrated that PKL ameliorates alcohol-induced fatty liver via activation of LKB1–AMPK and modulation of proteins related to lipogenesis, cholesterol synthesis, and fatty acid oxidation [76].

Cones and Needles

Ethnobotanical data highlight the use of cones and needles for rheumatic pain and wound healing [49]. Essential oils from cones of Pinus pinea and Pinus halepensis exhibited the highest wound healing activity, whereas other species showed negligible effects. Mountain pine needle oil improves blood circulation, demonstrates antimicrobial, spasmolytic, and expectorant properties [153,154]. Pinus eldarica aromatic water is used for rheumatoid arthritis in Iranian folk medicine [155]. Pinecone syrups have traditional applications for colds and are incorporated into foods and beverages [156,157].

Seeds/Nuts

Pine nuts (Pinus gerardiana) are used as food and traditional medicine for diuretic, expectorant, antibacterial, antiseptic, antifungal, antihypertensive, antiviral, and antineuralgic purposes [158]. They are rich in fatty acids, tocopherols, carotenoids, phytosterols, proteins, minerals, and vitamins [159,160]. Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica) seed oil can be formulated into nanostructured lipid carriers for cutaneous applications [104]. Lipid fractions of Pinus halepensis seeds show antiangiogenic activity useful in cancer prevention [161,162].

Pine Nodules

Pine nodules (matsufushi) of Pinus tabulaeformis or Pinus massoniana are used in Chinese traditional medicine for analgesic purposes, including joint pain, rheumatism, neuralgia, and dysmenorrhea [163].

Pine Resin and Rosin

Abietic acid from pine resin (Resina Pini) enhances angiogenesis in HUVECs and accelerates wound healing via activation of ERK and p38 MAPKs [119]. Resin, which is rich in abietic acid, is employed for wound treatment and shows anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-convulsant, and anti-metastatic activities [163,164]. Rosin extracts exhibit strong antioxidant and anticancer effects [165]. Turpentine from Pinus nigra displays antiseptic, antioxidant, analgesic, and dermatological effects [89].

Bark

Extracts of pine bark, from Pinus radiata, improve cognitive performance in older individuals [166]. French maritime pine bark extract modulates gene expression in human keratinocytes, suggesting potential in dermatological applications [167].

Roots and Other Parts

Maximum antimicrobial activity was observed in roots and cones of P. roxburghii, demonstrating antifungal and antibacterial properties [102]. Ethnobotanical uses of pine include treatment of skin conditions, asthma, wounds, bronchitis, common cold, and cough [168].

Novel Compounds

Three new abietane-type diterpenes, pinusins A–C, isolated from Pini Lignum Nodi (Pinus massoniana), along with other diterpenoids and a flavonoid, showed protective activities against acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity [169].

Figure 8 synthesizes the traditional and medicinal uses of Pinus species.

3.2.6. Phytochemical Profile of Pinus Species

Pinus species are characterized by a rich and diverse phytochemical composition, dominated by terpenoids, phenolic compounds, lignans, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, polysaccharides, and fatty acids. These secondary metabolites contribute to the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, wound-healing, hepatoprotective, cardiometabolic, and neuroprotective properties documented in pharmacological studies.

Table 3. Major phytochemical classes and representative compounds identified in selected Pinus species with extensive biological activity data.

Species	Major Compound Classes	Representative Bioactive Constituents	Reported Biological Relevance
Pinus massoniana	Diterpenoids, flavonoids, polysaccharides	Abietic acid, neoabietic acid, pinusins A–C, catechin, PPPS (PPP-1, -2, -3)	Wound healing, hepatoprotection, antioxidant, antiviral (ALV-J), anti-inflammatory
Pinus densiflora	Phenolics, flavonoids, lignans, terpenoids	Catechin, taxifolin, pinosylvin, α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene	Antioxidant, antimutagenic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory
Pinus pinaster	Procyanidins, catechins, phenolic acids, terpenoids	Procyanidin B1/B3, catechin, caffeic/ferulic acids, α-pinene	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, neuroprotective
Pinus halepensis	Essential oils, resin acids, phenolics	α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, limonene, abietic acid, gallic acid	Wound healing, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory
Pinus brutia	Essential oils, resin diterpenoids, flavonoids	α-pinene, β-pinene, abietic acid derivatives	Wound healing, antihyaluronidase, antimicrobial
Pinus sibirica	Phenolics, tannins, proanthocyanidins, fatty acids	Gallic acid, cinnamic acid derivatives, flavan-3-ols, linoleic/oleic acids	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, nutritional; nanocarrier formulations
Pinus gerardiana	Fatty acids, phenolics, sterols	Gallic acid, ellagic acid, pinolenic acid, β-sitosterol	Antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, tonic/aphrodisiac traditional uses
Pinus koraiensis	Fatty acids, terpenoids, phenolics	Pinolenic acid, linoleic acid, catechins, α-pinene	Anti-obesity, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory
Pinus tabuliformis	Terpenoids, flavonoids, lignans	Abietic acid, taxifolin, pinosylvin	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hepatoprotective
Pinus pinea	Essential oils, fatty acids, terpenoids	α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, tocopherols, oleic/pinolenic acids	Wound healing, antimicrobial, circulatory benefits

summarizes the major classes of bioactive compounds identified in the most investigated species.

Terpenoids—particularly α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, myrcene, caryophyllene, and abietane-type diterpenoids—are among the most widespread constituents in Pinus species and are closely associated with anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and wound-healing properties. Phenolic compounds, including catechins, taxifolin, pinosylvin, gallic and ellagic acids, are important contributors to antioxidant, antitumor, and metabolic-regulatory effects. Polysaccharides such as PPP-1 to PPP-3 from pine pollen exhibit strong immunomodulatory, wound-healing, and antiviral effects, while fatty acids—especially pinolenic acid—contribute to hypolipidemic and antidiabetic actions. This phytochemical diversity underpins the broad spectrum of medicinal applications observed across Pinus taxa worldwide.

4. Discussion

4.1. Bibliometric Review

The largest proportion of publications on this topic consists of articles, as in other studied cases [170,171,172]. A notable characteristic of this field is the comparatively high number of review articles (21%), whereas in other topics their proportion does not exceed 10% [173,174,175]. This is likely linked to both the high diversity of pine species and their chemically rich tissues, which provide numerous avenues for addressing different diseases. The broad participation of authors, journals, and countries reflects the interdisciplinary nature of this topic, positioned at the intersection of medicine, forestry, and ecology. Countries with established traditions in herbal and modern medicine—China, India, Turkey, South Korea, and the USA—are the most represented. The exponential increase in publications over the past two decades aligns with trends observed in other research areas [26,176,177]. As expected, the scientific fields associated with these works span plant sciences, chemistry, pharmacy, and pharmacology, and the associated keywords similarly reflect these domains [178,179].

4.2. Species Diversity and Medicinal Relevance of the Genus Pinus

The data compiled in Table 2 illustrate a remarkable global diversity of Pinus species explored for medicinal purposes. The presence of studies spanning North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa reflect the widespread distribution of this genus and its significance in traditional and modern medicine. Geographical trends and research focus:

Asian countries, particularly China and Korea, dominate the research landscape, with several endemic or regionally important species such as P. massoniana [82], P. tabuliformis [106,107], and P. densiflora [61] being actively studied for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. This strong focus likely reflects both the availability of species and the long-standing tradition of herbal medicine in East Asia.

In the Mediterranean region, species such as P. halepensis and P. brutia [49,50,71] have been investigated for essential oils and resin extracts with antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities. Similarly, P. nigra and its subspecies [88,89,90] are frequently reported for their phenolic and terpenoid profiles.

The European alpine and Balkan regions contribute several species—P. cembra, P. mugo, and P. peuce—that have been studied for their volatile constituents and antioxidant properties [72,86]. These findings suggest that ecological adaptation may influence the secondary metabolite content, leading to species-specific therapeutic potential.

In North America, investigations such as those on P. albicaulis, P. monticola, P. sabiniana, and P. flexilis [39] emphasize the pharmacological diversity of pines from temperate and subalpine ecosystems. Likewise, P. elliottii [66,67] and P. parviflora [94] highlight the transcontinental interest in both natural product discovery and ethnobotanical applications.

Taxonomic Breadth and Research Gaps

The compilation of 33 species represents a broad taxonomic spectrum within the genus Pinus. However, certain sections (e.g., Pinus subgenus Strobus) remain underexplored compared to others like P. sylvestris and P. nigra, which have extensive literature [49,105]. Notably, several North American and Himalayan species, including P. lambertiana and P. wallichiana [114], lack comprehensive phytochemical or pharmacological studies, indicating a need for further research.

4.3. Critical Analysis of Experimental Methods in the Evaluation of Medicinal Properties of Pinus Species

To contextualize experimental research on pine pharmacology, it is important to acknowledge the ecological factors—climate, soil, and habitat quality—that shape the biochemical composition of pine tissues. Climate change imposes pressures through increased temperatures, altered precipitation, and intensified extreme events [180,181]. Proper watershed and land management are therefore essential to maintain stable pine habitats and prevent soil erosion or flood damage [182,183,184]. Healthy forest structure and spatial organization, as studied in several ecological assessments [185,186,187], underpin the long-term availability of medicinally relevant biomass.

In addition to climatic pressures, soil and water pollution significantly influence the phytochemical profile of pine species. Environmental contaminants can trigger adaptive changes in secondary metabolism, often increasing phenolics, terpenoids, or resin acids as defensive responses. Such chemically mediated stress adaptations may enhance or diminish therapeutic potential depending on the metabolite groups involved. For example, stress-induced increases in antioxidant molecules could strengthen pharmacological effects, whereas pollutant-induced accumulation of undesirable compounds may reduce safety or efficacy. These environmental factors highlight the importance of standardized sampling and careful ecological documentation in pharmacological studies.

The methodological diversity in the reviewed studies—ranging from extraction approaches to analytical and biological assays—reflects the complexity of pine-derived natural products. Extraction methods differed substantially, influencing both chemical profiles and biological outcomes. Alkaline extraction for lignin derivatives [118], petroleum ether/alcohol extraction of P. roxburghii bark [101], aqueous–acetone extraction of P. sibirica [103], and optimized polysaccharide isolation from P. massoniana [82] illustrate how solvent selection governs the molecular composition of extracts. A lack of standardization across studies, however, complicates direct comparison of bioactivities.

The bioassay systems employed were generally appropriate for the intended pharmacological endpoints. In vitro tests such as nitric oxide quantification [118], DPPH assays [117,120], and MTT cytotoxicity evaluations [120] offer efficient preliminary screening, though they only approximate physiological complexity. In vivo models—including wound-healing trials [49] and studies on abietic acid [119]—provide more integrative perspectives but often without mechanistic resolution or component-specific attribution. Some experimental designs, such as the carrageenan-induced inflammation and writhing assays [101], deliver symptomatic insights but limited molecular depth.

The analytical characterization of extracts also varied. While some studies used chromatographic fingerprinting [103] or Western blotting for pathway elucidation [119], others relied on qualitative assessments, limiting interpretation. More consistent integration of high-resolution tools (LC–MS, NMR, metabolomics) would strengthen structure–activity relationships.

Despite these limitations, studies that combine phytochemical profiling with both in vitro and in vivo assays—such as those assessing NO production, MAPK activation, and wound repair [119]—produce more robust and interpretable findings. Overall, the current evidence base remains predominantly preclinical, and conclusions on therapeutic relevance must be framed accordingly.

4.4. Global Perspectives on the Medicinal and Ethnobotanical Importance of Pine Species

Pine species represent important ethnomedicinal resources across continents, providing provisioning, regulating, and cultural ecosystem services [9,10]. In East Asia, pine pollen has long served as both remedy and functional food, with studies reporting antioxidant and antidiabetic properties that align with traditional claims about vitality promotion [121,122,123]. In Central and South Asia, overlapping ethnoveterinary and human uses—such as those reported in Pakistan [114]—reflect integrated knowledge systems.

In Mediterranean countries, resins and tars from P. nigra, P. halepensis, and others continue to play roles in treating infections, pain, and inflammatory conditions [71,88,130], supported by historical accounts such as iatrosophia texts from Cyprus [128].

Eastern European and Central Asian uses, including Kazakhstan’s development of “bialm” ointment [127] and pine-based foods like jam in Russia and Georgia [125], demonstrate how traditional practices coexist with emerging evidence. Recent essential oil research from Bosnia and Herzegovina [129] further illustrates growing scientific and technological interest (e.g., encapsulation). Future afforestation should prioritize genetic diversity, as emphasized for Pinus cembra [188,189], Fagus sylvatica [190], and Picea abies [191,192,193], to ensure resilience under global warming.

Across regions, pine products—resins, essential oils, pollens—are valued for immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, and wound-healing effects. While ethnomedicinal uses are increasingly supported by pharmacological studies, many claims remain based on preclinical evidence, and cultural variations in preparation and dosage must be considered in future research.

4.5. Therapeutic Significance and Pharmacological Insights into Pinus Species

The reviewed literature demonstrates that Pinus species possess diverse bioactivities relevant to inflammation, oxidative stress, metabolic regulation, neuroprotection, and cancer. Compounds such as abietic acid, pine pollen polysaccharides, and essential oils exhibit wound-healing and anti-inflammatory effects through pathways including p38, ERK, and JAK2–STAT3 [49,119,132]. Traditional uses of P. nigra and P. sylvestris resin for wound care [133] align with these mechanistic observations.

P. pinaster bark extract (Pycnogenol^®) is among the most studied pine-derived preparations, with evidence suggesting benefit for osteoarthritis and vascular health [134], as well as antioxidative and neuroprotective effects [143,144]. However, most data remain preclinical or based on limited clinical studies; therefore, conclusions must be interpreted cautiously.

Metabolic and hepatoprotective activities—documented for P. gerardiana and P. eldarica [51,138]—and hepatoprotection by P. brutia pollen [136] suggest potential roles in glucose and lipid regulation. Several species also exhibit antiviral and anticancer activity, including P. parviflora [94,141] and P. roxburghii needles [142]. Neuroprotective effects reported for P. pinaster and P. canariensis [52,145] further broaden potential applications. Across pharmacological categories, the evidence is promising yet predominantly experimental. Further clinical trials, standardized extract characterization, and pharmacokinetic evaluations are required before therapeutic applications can be definitively established.

4.6. Medicinal Potential of Different Pine Components

The reviewed studies we found in the literature highlight that various parts of pine plants possess diverse pharmacological properties with therapeutic potential. Pine pollen, rich in polysaccharides (PPPS), shows particular promise for dermatological applications due to its ability to enhance tight junction protein expression and facilitate wound healing [106,151]. Its multifunctional bioactivity, ranging from antioxidant to hepatoprotective effects, underscores its broad medicinal relevance [107].

Leaves, especially from Pinus koraiensis, demonstrate metabolic regulatory properties, suggesting their potential in managing alcohol-induced liver disease and metabolic disorders [76]. Cones and needles, particularly their essential oils, show wound healing and anti-inflammatory effects, highlighting the ethnomedicinal practices in Turkish and Iranian traditions [49,155]. These findings corroborate the role of pine-derived oils in circulatory improvement, antimicrobial action, and musculoskeletal relief [153,154].

Pine seeds and oils provide a nutrient-rich source of fatty acids, vitamins, and bioactive lipids, which not only support general health but also possess antiangiogenic and anticancer potential [160,162]. Similarly, pine nodules, resin, and rosin demonstrate analgesic, anti-inflammatory, angiogenic, and anticancer properties, suggesting that these traditional remedies have a molecular basis that can be harnessed for modern therapeutic development [119,163,165].

Bark extracts, such as Enzogenol^®, provide evidence of neuroprotective and dermatological benefits, expanding the spectrum of pine’s medicinal applications beyond traditional uses [166,167]. Roots and cones also exhibit significant antimicrobial potential, supporting their role in traditional medicine as broad-spectrum remedies [102].

We can conclude that the diverse pharmacological activities of pine components—including antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, wound healing, metabolic regulatory, neuroprotective, and anticancer properties—provide strong evidence for their ethnomedicinal relevance and suggest promising avenues for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical development. Continued research into the bioactive compounds and molecular mechanisms of pine derivatives will be crucial to translate traditional knowledge into evidence-based therapies.

4.7. Gaps of Our Research and Future Directions of Research

Although this study provides a comprehensive bibliometric and qualitative synthesis of the global research on the medicinal uses of Pinus species, several limitations and knowledge gaps remain.

First, the bibliometric analysis relied on data from two major databases (Scopus and Web of Science), which may not fully capture relevant publications indexed in regional, ethnobotanical, or non-English sources. Consequently, valuable local and traditional knowledge—especially from under-represented regions such as Africa, South America, and parts of Southeast Asia—may be underreported.

Second, while the qualitative review highlights the chemical and pharmacological diversity of Pinus species, many studies lack methodological standardization. Differences in extraction procedures, plant parts used, solvent systems, and bioassay conditions make it difficult to compare results across studies or to identify specific bioactive compounds responsible for the reported therapeutic effects.

Third, the majority of available data are derived from in vitro and animal studies, with limited clinical validation. There is a clear need for well-designed in vivo and clinical trials to confirm the safety, efficacy, dosage, and pharmacokinetic properties of pine-derived preparations. Furthermore, few investigations address potential toxicity, long-term effects, or interactions with conventional drugs.

Fourth, research has primarily focused on a limited number of economically important species such as P. pinaster, P. sylvestris, and P. massoniana, while numerous other taxa with ethnomedicinal relevance remain poorly studied. Expanding phytochemical and pharmacological screening to lesser-known Pinus species could uncover novel bioactive compounds with therapeutic potential.

So, we think that future research should integrate multidisciplinary approaches that combine ethnobotany, phytochemistry, molecular pharmacology, and bioinformatics. Advanced analytical techniques such as metabolomics, proteomics, and network pharmacology could help elucidate structure–activity relationships and mechanisms of action. Collaborative international studies and the creation of standardized databases on pine phytochemistry and pharmacology would further enhance knowledge sharing and translational research. In summary, future investigations should emphasize: inclusion of non-indexed and traditional knowledge sources; methodological harmonization in experimental design; clinical and toxicological validation of pine-based products; exploration of under-studied Pinus species; and integration of modern omics technologies to accelerate the discovery of novel therapeutic compounds.

5. Conclusions

This article presents a bibliometric and systematic review of publications on medical use of pine species. Nearly 90 species of pine trees have been described as having medicinal properties.

Concrete examples were provided regarding traditional medicine from the main regions of Asia, Europe, America, Africa and Oceania. The main methods of use of pine organs or secretions (needles, branches, bark, buds, cones, seeds, pollen, roots, wood, sap, resin, pitch, etc.) in traditional medicine were presented.

Pine constituents have a wide range of therapeutic properties: antioxidant, antimutagenic, anticancer, respiratory ailments (coughs and fevers), antiviral, bactericide, fungicide, insecticide, acaricide, skin protective (cuts, sores, and burns), dermatological aids (acne), antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, antiallergenic, allergen denaturant, dietary role, laxative, improving blood flow and serum lipids, antihypertensive, atherosclerosis, anti-aging, antithrombotic, relieve (muscle and joint) pain, gynecological concerns, testosterone 5α-reductase inhibitor, prevents selenite-induced cataract formation, eyewash role, immune support, vitamin C supply, dietary role, ideal species for forest therapy (forest bath).