Seed Networks for Upscaling Forest Landscape Restoration: Is It Possible to Expand Native Plant Sources in Brazil?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results
3.1. Reasons for the Shortage of Native Seeds
3.2. Assessment of Seed Supply Systems
3.3. Estimation of Required Native Plant Sources for Large-Scale Restoration
4. Discussion
4.1. Risks for Native Seed Supply to Restoration Market
4.2. Opportunities for Native Seed Supply to Large-Scale Restoration
4.3. Key Strategies for Upscaling Plant Material Supply in Brazil
4.3.1. Government Incentives and Subsidies
4.3.2. Land Restoration Enforcement
4.3.3. Community Participation
4.3.4. Adaptation of the Native Seed Regulations
4.3.5. Technological Development
4.3.6. Market Diversification
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Tilman, D.; Balzer, C.; Hill, J.; Befort, B.L. Global food demand and the sustainable intensification of agriculture. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 20260–20264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gibbs, H.K.; Salmon, J.M. Mapping the world’s degraded lands. Appl. Geogr. 2015, 57, 12–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suding, K.; Higgs, E.; Palmer, M.; Callicott, J.B.; Anderson, C.B.; Baker, M.; Gutrich, J.J.; Hondula, K.L.; LaFevor, M.C.; Larson, B.M.H.; et al. Committing to ecological restoration. Science 2015, 348, 638–640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Griscom, B.W.; Adams, J.; Ellis, P.W.; Houghton, R.A.; Lomax, G.; Miteva, D.A.; Schlesinger, W.H.; Shoch, D.; Siikamäki, J.V.; Smith, P.; et al. Natural climate solutions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2017, 114, 11645–11650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Erbaugh, J.T.; Oldekop, J.A. Forest landscape restoration for livelihoods and well-being. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2018, 32, 76–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WWF and IUCN. Forests Reborn A Workshop on Forest Restoration; IUCN/WWF: Segovia, Spain, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Maginnis, S.; Jackson, W. What Is FLR and How Does It Differ from Current Approaches? In The Forest Landscape Restoration Handbook; Reitbergen-McCracken, S., Maginnis, A.S., Eds.; Earthscan: London, UK, 2007; pp. 5–20. [Google Scholar]
- Lewis, S.; Wheeler, C.E.; Mitchard, E.T.A.; Koch, A. Regenerate natural forests to store carbon. Nature 2019, 568, 25–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rice, J.; Seixas, C.S.; Zaccagnini, M.E.; BedoyaGaitán, M.; Valderrama, N.; Anderson, C.B.; Fennessy, S. Summary for policymakers of the regional assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services for the Americas of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. IPBES Book 2018, 9, 44. [Google Scholar]
- Busch, J.; Engelmann, J.; Cook-Patton, S.C.; Griscom, B.W.; Kroeger, T.; Possingham, H.; Shyamsundar, P. Potential for low-cost carbon dioxide removal through tropical reforestation. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2019, 9, 463–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WRI Bonn Challenge|World Resources Institute. Available online: http://www.wri.org/our-work/project/forest-and-landscape-restoration/bonn-challenge (accessed on 15 March 2017).
- The New York Declaration on Forests Progress Assess. Protecting and Restoring Forests: A Story of Large Commitments yet Limited Progress. New York Declaration on Forests Five-Year Assessment Report; Climate Focus: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- COP COP 21 Report. Available online: http://unfccc.int/meetings/paris_nov_2015/session/9057/php/view/decisions.php (accessed on 15 March 2017).
- Brancalion, P.H.S.; Niamir, A.; Broadbent, E.; Crouzeilles, R.; Barros, F.S.M.; Almeyda Zambrano, A.M.; Baccini, A.; Aronson, J.; Goetz, S.; Reid, J.L.; et al. Global restoration opportunities in tropical rainforest landscapes. Sci. Adv. 2019, 5, eaav3223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chazdon, R.L.; Brancalion, P.H.S.; Lamb, D.; Laestadius, L.; Calmon, M.; Kumar, C. A Policy-Driven Knowledge Agenda for Global Forest and Landscape Restoration. Conserv. Lett. 2017, 10, 125–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adams, C.; Rodrigues, S.T.; Calmon, M.; Kumar, C. Impacts of large-scale forest restoration on socioeconomic status and local livelihoods: What we know and do not know. Biotropica 2016, 48, 731–744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jalonen, R.; Valette, M.; Boshier, D.; Duminil, J.; Thomas, E. Forest and landscape restoration severely constrained by a lack of attention to the quantity and quality of tree seed: Insights from a global survey. Conserv. Lett. 2017, 11, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Merritt, D.J.; Dixon, K.W. Restoration Seed Banks—A Matter of Scale. Science 2011, 332, 424–425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nyoka, B.I.; Roshetko, J.; Jamnadass, R.; Muriuki, J.; Kalinganire, A.; Lillesø, J.P.B.; Beedy, T.; Cornelius, J. Tree Seed and Seedling Supply Systems: A Review of the Asia, Africa and Latin America Models. Small-Scale For. 2014, 14, 171–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oldfield, S.; Olwell, P. The Right Seed in the Right Place at the Right Time. BioScience 2015, 65, 955–956. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sommerville, K.D.; Clarke, B.; Keppel, G.; McGill, C.; Newby, Z.-J.; Wyse, S.V.; James, S.A.; Offord, C.A. Saving rainforests in the South Pacific: Challenges in ex situ conservation. Aust. J. Bot. 2017, 65, 609. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lillesø, J.P.B.; Harwood, C.; Derero, A.; Graudal, L.; Roshetko, J.M.; Kindt, R.; Moestrup, S.; Omondi, W.O.; Holtne, N.; Mbora, A.; et al. Why institutional environments for agroforestry seed systems matter. Dev. Policy Rev. 2017, 36, O89–O112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nyoka, B.I.; Ajayi, O.C.; Akinnifesi, F.K.; Chanyenga, T.; Mng’omba, S.A.; Sileshi, G.; Jamnadass, R.; Madhibha, T. Certification of agroforestry tree germplasm in Southern Africa: Opportunities and challenges. Agrofor. Syst. 2011, 83, 75–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Urzedo, D.I.; Fisher, R.; Piña-Rodrigues, F.C.M.; Freire, J.M.; Junqueira, R.G.P. How policies constrain native seed supply for restoration in Brazil. Restor. Ecol. 2019, 27, 768–774. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Whiteman, A. Statistics on the production and trade of forest seeds and other forest plant material. In Forestry Statistics and Data Collection—DCA/MISC/02; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2005; p. 28. [Google Scholar]
- Walters, C.; Berjak, P.; Pammenter, N.; Kennedy, K.; Raven, P. Preservation of Recalcitrant Seeds. Science 2013, 339, 915–916. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kindt, R.; Lillesø, J.P.B.; Mbora, A.; Muriuki, J.; Wambugu, C.; Frost, W.; Beniest, J.; Aithal, A.; Awimbo, J.; Rao, S.; et al. Tree Seeds for Farmers: A Toolkit and Reference Source; World Agroforestry Centre: Nairobi, Kenya, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Smith, S. Regional native seed cooperatives: Working toward available, affordable, and appropriate native seed. Nativ. Plants J. 2017, 18, 126–13413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Görg, C.; Wittmer, H.; Carter, C.; Turnhout, E.; Vandewalle, M.; Schindler, S.; Livorell, B.; Lux, A. Governance options for science–policy interfaces on biodiversity and ecosystem services: Comparing a network versus a platform approach. Biodivers. Conserv. 2016, 25, 1235–1252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nevill, P.G.; Tomlinson, S.; Elliott, C.P.; Espeland, E.K.; Dixon, K.W.; Merritt, D.J. Seed production areas for the global restoration challenge. Ecol. Evol. 2016, 6, 7490–7497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Schmidt, I.B.; de Urzedo, D.I.; Piña-Rodrigues, F.C.M.; Vieira, D.L.M.; de Rezende, G.M.; Sampaio, A.B.; Junqueira, R.G.P. Community-based native seed production for restoration in Brazil-the role of science and policy. Plant Biol. 2018, 21, 389–397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Urzedo, D.I.; Vidal, E.; Sills, E.O.; Piña-Rodrigues, F.C.M. Tropical forest seeds in the household economy: Effects of market participation among three sociocultural groups in the Upper Xingu region of the Brazilian Amazon. Environ. Conserv. 2016, 43, 13–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Romijn, E.; Coppus, R.; De Sy, V.; Herold, M.; Roman-Cuesta, R.M.; Verchot, L. Land Restoration in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Overview of Recent, Ongoing and Planned Restoration Initiatives and Their Potential for Climate Change Mitigation. Forests 2019, 10, 510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- WRI Initiative 20×20. Available online: https://www.wri.org/our-work/project/initiative-20x20 (accessed on 27 February 2020).
- Ministério do Meio Ambiente. Brazil Planaveg: Plano Nacional de Recuperação da Vegetação Nativa; Ministério do Meio Ambiente: Brasília, Brazil, 2017; p. 76.
- Brazil Law No 12,651—Protection of the Native Vegetation. Available online: http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2011-2014/2012/lei/l12651.htm (accessed on 11 October 2018).
- Piña-Rodrigues, F.C.M.; Nogueira, E.S.; Peixoto, M.C.; Reis, L.L. Estado da arte da produção de sementes de espécies florestais na Mata Atlântica. In Parâmetros Técnicos Para a Produção de Sementes Florestais; Pina-Rodrigues, F.C.M., Freire, J.M., Leles, P.S.S., Breier, B.B., Eds.; EDUR-UFRRJ: Seropédica, Brazil, 2007; pp. 11–34. ISBN 9788585720582. [Google Scholar]
- Pizo, M.A. Seed dispersal and predation in two populations of Cabralea canjerana (Meliaceae) in the Atlantic Forest of southeastern Brazil. J. Trop. Ecol. 1997, 13, 559–577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vaz Ferreira, A.; Bruna, E.M.; Vasconcelos, H.L. Seed predators limit plant recruitment in Neotropical savannas. Oikos 2011, 120, 1013–1022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dalling, J.W.; Swaine, M.D.; Garwood, N.C. Dispersal patterns and seed bank dynamics of pioneer trees in moist tropical forest. Ecology 1998, 79, 564–578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hulme, P.E.; Benkman, C.W. Granivory. In Plant-Animal Interactions: An Evolutionary Approach; Pellmyr, C.H.O., Ed.; Blackwell Scientific Publications: New York, NY, USA, 2000; pp. 132–154. [Google Scholar]
- Ferreira, M. Melhoramento e a silvicultura intensiva clonal. Série Técnica IPEF 1992, 45, 22–30. [Google Scholar]
- Brazil Law 5,106-Tax Incentives for Forestry Sector. Available online: http://www2.camara.leg.br/legin/fed/lei/1960-1969/lei-5106-2-setembro-1966-368482-normaatualizada-pl.html (accessed on 11 October 2018).
- Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden Brazilian Flora 2020. Available online: http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/ (accessed on 7 December 2017).
- Ferreira, M. A aventura dos eucaliptus. In Silvicultura do Eucalipto no Brasil; Schumacher, M., Viera, M., Eds.; Editora UFSM: Santa Maria, Philippines, 2016; pp. 11–46. [Google Scholar]
- Rossato, F.G.; Susaeta, A.; Adams, D.C.; Hidalgo, I.G.; de Araujo, T.D.; de Queiroz, A. Comparison of revealed comparative advantage indexes with application to trade tendencies of cellulose production from planted forests in Brazil, Canada, China, Sweden, Finland and the United States. For. Policy Econ. 2018, 97, 59–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brazil Lei de Inspeção e a Fiscalização Da Produção e Do Comércio de Sementes e Muda. Available online: http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/LEIS/1970-1979/L6507.htm (accessed on 12 February 2020).
- Brazil Sistema Nacional de Sementes e Mudas. Available online: http://sistemasweb.agricultura.gov.br/renasem/ (accessed on 27 February 2020).
- Brazil Law No 4,771—The Brazilian Forest Code. Available online: http://www2.camara.leg.br/legin/fed/lei/1960-1969/lei-4771-15-setembro-1965-369026-publicacaooriginal-1-pl.html (accessed on 11 October 2018).
- Chazdon, R.L. Beyond deforestation: Restoring forests and ecosystem services on degraded lands. Science 2008, 320, 1458–1460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Zahawi, R.A.; Holl, K.D. Comparing the Performance of Tree Stakes and Seedlings to Restore Abandoned Tropical Pastures. Restor. Ecol. 2009, 17, 854–864. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moreira da Silva, A.P.; Schweizer, D.; Rodrigues Marques, H.; Cordeiro Teixeira, A.M.; Nascente dos Santos, T.V.M.; Sambuichi, R.H.R.; Badari, C.G.; Gaudare, U.; Brancalion, P.H.S. Can current native tree seedling production and infrastructure meet an increasing forest restoration demand in Brazil? Restor. Ecol. 2016, 25, 509–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Durigan, G.; Guerin, N.; da Costa, J.N.M.N. Ecological restoration of Xingu Basin headwaters: Motivations, engagement, challenges and perspectives. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. BBiol. Sci. 2013, 368, 20120165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Brazil Decreto, no. 6.040—Política Nacional de Desenvolvimento Sustentável dos Povos e Comunidades Tradicionais. Available online: http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2007-2010/2007/decreto/d6040.htm (accessed on 27 February 2020).
- MMA. Amazon Fund. Available online: http://www.amazonfund.gov.br/en/home/ (accessed on 27 February 2020).
- Brazil Lei nº 6.938—Política Nacional Do Meio Ambiente. Available online: http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/LEIS/L6938.htm (accessed on 27 February 2020).
- Pellizzaro, K.F.; Cordeiro, A.O.O.; Alves, M.; Motta, C.P.; Rezende, G.M.; Silva, R.R.P.; Ribeiro, J.F.; Sampaio, A.B.; Vieira, D.L.M.; Schmidt, I.B. “Cerrado” restoration by direct seeding: Field establishment and initial growth of 75 trees, shrubs and grass species. Braz. J. Bot. 2017, 40, 681–693. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shackleton, S.; Paumgarten, F.; Kassa, H.; Husselman, M.; Zida, M. Opportunities for enhancing poor women’s socioeconomic empowerment in the value chains of three African non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Int. For. Rev. 2011, 13, 136–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Campos-Filho, E.M.; Da Costa, J.N.M.N.; Sousa, O.; Junqueira, R.G.P.; Da Costa, J.N.M.N.; De Sousa, O.L.; Junqueira, R.G.P. Mechanized Direct-Seeding of Native Forests in Xingu, Central Brazil. J. Sustain. For. 2013, 32, 702–727. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Freitas, M.G.; Rodrigues, S.B.; Campos-Filho, E.M.; do Carmo, G.H.P.; da Veiga, J.M.; Junqueira, R.G.P.; Vieira, D.L.M. Evaluating the success of direct seeding for tropical forest restoration over ten years. For. Ecol. Manag. 2019, 438, 224–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sampaio, A.B.; Vieira, D.L.M.; Holl, K.D.; Pellizzaro, K.F.; Alves, M.; Coutinho, A.G.; Cordeiro, A.; Ribeiro, J.F.; Schmidt, I.B. Lessons on direct seeding to restore Neotropical savanna. Ecol. Eng. 2019, 138, 148–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- FAO State of Forest and Tree Genetic Resources in Dry Zone Southern Africa Development Community Countries. Available online: http://www.fao.org/3/ac850e/ac850e00.htm#Contents (accessed on 24 February 2020).
- Abessa, D.; Famá, A.; Buruaem, L. The systematic dismantling of Brazilian environmental laws risks losses on all fronts. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2019, 3, 510–511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Levis, C.; Flores, B.M.; Mazzochini, G.G.; Manhães, A.P.; Campos-silva, J.V.; De Amorim, P.B.; Peroni, N.; Hirota, M.; Clement, C.R. Help restore Brazil’ s governance of globally important ecosystem services. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2020, 4, 172–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Khoury, C.K.; Bjorkman, A.D.; Dempewolf, H.; Ramirez-Villegas, J.; Guarino, L.; Jarvis, A.; Rieseberg, L.H.; Struik, P.C. Increasing homogeneity in global food supplies and the implications for food security. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2014, 111, 4001–4006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Silva, A.P.M.; Marques, H.R.; dos Santos, T.V.M.N.; Teixeira, A.M.C.; Sambuichi, R.H.R.; Luciano, M.S. Ferreira Diagnóstico da Produção de Mudas Florestais Nativas no Brasil. Available online: http://repositorio.ipea.gov.br/bitstream/11058/7515/1/RP_Diagn%c3%b3stico_2015.pdf (accessed on 24 February 2020).
- Labouriau, F.L. The Interest in Seed Studies. Organ. Am. States 1990, 9, 1–12. [Google Scholar]
- Lévis-Strauss, C. The Use of Wild Plants in Tropical South America x. Econ. Bot. 1952, 6, 252–270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carneiro Cunha, M.C.; Morim de Lima, A.G. How Amazonian Indigenous Peoples enhance Biodiversity. In Knowing our Lands and Resources: Indigenous and Local Knowledge of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in the Americas. Knowledges of Nature; Baptiste, B., Pacheco, D., da Cunha, M.C., Diaz, S., Eds.; UNESCO: Paris, France, 2017; pp. 1–22. [Google Scholar]
- Levis, C.; Flores, B.M.; Moreira, P.A.; Luize, B.G.; Alves, R.P.; Franco-Moraes, J.; Lins, J.; Konings, E.; Peña-Claros, M.; Bongers, F.; et al. How people domesticated Amazonian forests. Front. Ecol. Evol. 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Brazil Bolsa Família-Programas Sociais—Caixa. Available online: http://www.caixa.gov.br/programas-sociais/bolsa-familia/paginas/default.aspx (accessed on 11 January 2020).
- MMA Bolsa. Available online: https://www.mma.gov.br/biomas/caatinga/iniciativas-de-uso-sustentável/itemlist/category/74-bolsa-verde.html (accessed on 11 January 2020).
- Soares, F.V.; Ribas, R.P.; Osorio, R. Evaluating the Impact of Brazil’s Bolsa Família: Cash Transfer Programs in Comparative Perspective. Latin Am. Res. Rev. 2010, 45, 173–190. [Google Scholar]
- Mourão, L.; de Jesus, A.M. Bolsa família (Family Grant) programme: An analysis of Brazilian income transfer programme. Field Actions Sci. Rep. 2012, 4, 43–49. [Google Scholar]
- IBGE Resultados do Censo Agro 2017. Available online: https://censoagro2017.ibge.gov.br/templates/censo_agro/resultadosagro/pecuaria.html (accessed on 29 May 2019).
- World Bank Brazil Wood Exports By Country 2017. Available online: https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/BRA/Year/2017/TradeFlow/Export/Partner/by-country/Product/44-49_Wood/Show/PartnerName;XPRT-TRD-VL;XPRT-PRDCT-SHR;/Sort/XPRT-TRD-VL/Chart/top10 (accessed on 11 January 2020).
- Camhi, A.L.; Perrings, C.; Butterfield, B.; Wood, T. Market-based opportunities for expanding native seed resources for restoration: A case study on the Colorado Plateau. J. Environ. Manag. 2019, 252, 109644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Soares-Filho, B.; Rajão, R.; Macedo, M.; Carneiro, A.; Costa, W.; Coe, M.; Rodrigues, H.; Alencar, A. Cracking Brazil’s Forest Code. Science 2014, 344, 363–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jalonen, R.; Thomas, E.; Cavers, S.; Bozzano, M.; Boshier, D.; Bordács, S.; Gallo, L.; Smith, P.; Loo, J. Analysis of genetic considerations in restoration methods. In Genetic Considerations in Ecosystem Restoration Using Native Tree Species. State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources; Bozzano, M., Jalonen, R., Thomas, E., Boshier, D., Gallo, L., Cavers, S., Bordács, S., Smith, P., Loo, J., Eds.; FAO and Bioversity International: Rome, Italy, 2014; pp. 245–274. [Google Scholar]
- Pedrini, S.; Merritt, D.J.; Stevens, J.; Dixon, K. Seed Coating: Science or Marketing Spin? Trends Plant Sci. 2017, 22, 106–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Batista, A.; Pradom, A.; Pontes, C.; Matsumoto, M. Verena Investment Tool: Valuing Reforestation with Native Tree Species and Agroforestry Systems; WRI Brasil: São Paulo, Brazil, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Faruqi, S.; Wu, A.; Brolis, E.; Ortega, A.A.; Batista, A. The Business of Planting Trees: A Growing Investment Opportunity; WRI: Washington, DC, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
Scenario | Ecosystem Restoration Techniques (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Total Planting (1.666 Seedlings/ha−1) | Enrichment (600 Seedlings/ha−1) | Direct Seeding (23.3 kg Seeds/ha−1) | Natural Regeneration | |
1 | 50.0 | 20.0 | 5.0 | 25.0 |
2 | 40.0 | 20.0 | 2.5 | 37.5 |
3 | 30.0 | 20.0 | 1.25 | 48.75 |
4 | 20.0 | 22.5 | 1.0 | 56.5 |
5 | 20.0 | 25.0 | 1.0 | 54.0 |
Seed Network | Ecosystem | Creation (year) | Seed Supplied (tonnes) | Native Species (n) | Seed Collectors (n) | Cash Income (USD) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Xingu | Amazon | 2007 | 219.7 | 214 | 568 | 1,323,616 |
Portal | Amazon | 2010 | 142.7 | 183 | 250 | 871,484 |
Cerrado de Pé | Tropical savanna | 2012 | 36.6 | 72 | 66 | 56,120 |
Tupygua | Atlantic Forest | 2012 | 12.96 | 94 | 89 | 80,648 |
Arboretum | Atlantic Forest | 2015 | 4.82 | 232 | 29 | 76,143 |
Vale do Ribeira | Atlantic Forest | 2017 | 0.13 | 19 | 14 | 3378 |
Total | 416.91 | - | 1016 | 2,411,389 |
Restoration Scenario | Restoration Techniques (103 Tonnes of Native Seed) | Total of Native Seed (103 tonnes) | Total Collectors (n) (Collectors/year) | Total Income (Million USD) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Planting | Enrichment | Direct Seeding | ||||
1 | 1.4 | 0.2 | 14.0 | 15.6 | 514,043 (57,116) | 146.5 |
2 | 1.1 | 0.2 | 7.0 | 8.3 | 274,641 (30,516) | 78.3 |
3 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 3.5 | 4.5 | 150,198 (16,689) | 42.8 |
4 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 2.8 | 3.6 | 118,572 (13,175) | 33.8 |
5 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 2.7 | 3.6 | 119,421 (13,269) | 34.0 |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Urzedo, D.I.d.; Piña-Rodrigues, F.C.M.; Feltran-Barbieri, R.; Junqueira, R.G.P.; Fisher, R. Seed Networks for Upscaling Forest Landscape Restoration: Is It Possible to Expand Native Plant Sources in Brazil? Forests 2020, 11, 259. https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030259
Urzedo DId, Piña-Rodrigues FCM, Feltran-Barbieri R, Junqueira RGP, Fisher R. Seed Networks for Upscaling Forest Landscape Restoration: Is It Possible to Expand Native Plant Sources in Brazil? Forests. 2020; 11(3):259. https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030259
Chicago/Turabian StyleUrzedo, Danilo I. de, Fatima C.M. Piña-Rodrigues, Rafael Feltran-Barbieri, Rodrigo G.P. Junqueira, and Robert Fisher. 2020. "Seed Networks for Upscaling Forest Landscape Restoration: Is It Possible to Expand Native Plant Sources in Brazil?" Forests 11, no. 3: 259. https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030259
APA StyleUrzedo, D. I. d., Piña-Rodrigues, F. C. M., Feltran-Barbieri, R., Junqueira, R. G. P., & Fisher, R. (2020). Seed Networks for Upscaling Forest Landscape Restoration: Is It Possible to Expand Native Plant Sources in Brazil? Forests, 11(3), 259. https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030259