1. Introduction
In recent years, fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars have been used to reinforce concrete members in tension, while their contribution in compression has been neglected due to insufficient research. The main advantages of FRP bars in comparison with steel are their very light density, larger strength, and most importantly that they do not corrode even in harsh environments. The mechanical and physical properties of FRPs are controlled by their micro-structural configuration and the properties of their constituents. FRP composites are ideal for structural applications where high strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios are required [
1]. However, the applications of advanced composite materials in civil engineering have been evolving slowly, primarily due to economic reasons. This class of materials has been extensively studied and used in the structural and aerospace engineering fields, such as aircraft construction [
2]. While FRP materials can support tensile stresses, there are numerous issues surrounding the use of FRP in compression [
3].
Many studies had also been conducted to evaluate the durability [
4,
5,
6,
7,
8], flexural [
9,
10,
11], and shear [
12,
13,
14,
15,
16,
17] performances of concrete beams reinforced with carbon (CFRP), glass (GFRP), and basalt (BFRP) FRP types of bars. Other studies investigated the effect of high temperatures on the performance of FRP bars [
18]. Hybrid reinforcements of steel and FRP bars were also examined for slender beams under flexure [
19,
20]. However, limited research has been conducted on investigating the compressive response of FRP bars [
21].
For the research that investigated the behavior of FRP bars under compression, different setups have been made, with varying ways of measurement, methods of fixing the ends, as well as strain rates [
22,
23,
24,
25,
26,
27]. Plevkov et al. [
22] examined the behavior of GFRP and CFRP bars of 10 mm in diameter and 50 mm in length under compression. The modulus of elasticity was found to be 41 GPa for the GFRP bars, which is 67% of that in tension, and 105 GPa for the CFRP bars, which is 73% of that in tension. A study by Khan et al. [
26] examined the compressive performance of CFRP bars using a simplified ASTM D695-10 [
28] compression test method for rigid plastics. The modulus of elasticity in compression for the CFRP bars was 17% times greater than that of the GFRP bars, while the modulus of elasticity in compression of the GFRP bars (42.0 GPa) obtained was almost identical to the value (42.5 GPa) reported by Deitz et al. [
25]. Recent studies have investigated the performance of concrete columns reinforced with FRP bars both numerically and experimentally [
21,
29,
30,
31]. The main outcome of these studies was to investigate the contribution of the FRP bars to the load-carrying capacities of RC columns as compared to steel bars. It was shown that such a contribution to the GRP bars was less than that of steel. However, the contribution of CFRP bars to the load-carrying capacity of FRP-reinforced concrete (RC) columns was the same or higher than that of steel bars.
Although international codes have recently started to permit the use of FRP bars in compression members, the lack of research in this area results in an incomplete understanding of the FRP bars’ behavior under compression. Therefore, the first objective of this paper was to provide experimental data on the compressive performance of different sizes of GFRP and BFRP bars. The experimental results were then utilized to numerically investigate the axial performance of concrete columns reinforced with these types and sizes of FRP bars (FRP-RC columns). Nonlinear finite element models were developed to simulate the axial performance of the FRP-RC columns and were validated using experimental tests conducted previously by the authors. The validated models were then used to perform a parametric analysis, considering several column geometries and cross-sections, reinforcement ratios, ties materials, concrete strengths, and loading eccentricities. The FE results were presented and discussed in terms of load vs. displacement curves, interaction diagrams, and ductility indices.
2. Experimental Evaluation of BFRP and GFRP Bars under Compression
In this section, the compressive properties of the GFRP and BFRP bars are experimentally investigated. Commercially produced Φ 8, Φ 12, and Φ 16 GFRP and BFRP bars were selected for this study, as shown in
Figure 1.
The GFRP and BFRP bars were produced by Galen, a Russian company based in the city of Cheboksary. These GFRP and BFRP bars were manufactured by pultrusion, in which the fibers (glass or basalt) are impregnated with a polymer binder, and then run through the system drain bushing.
The tensile properties of these bars listed in
Table 1 were obtained by the authors in previous work [
10,
27].
Several compression test setups were examined, and the test arrangement shown in
Figure 2 was chosen.
It was difficult to obtain a perfectly flat end perpendicular to the loading axis with the equipment available. Restraining the ends of the specimens with a recess is illustrated in the test apparatus shown in
Figure 2. It was intended to reduce the effect of the specimen tilting, which would have an effect on the test results.
The FRP bars were tested using a universal testing machine (UTM) with a capacity of 3000 kN under compression, as shown in
Figure 3a.
The compression tests were conducted at a rate of 0.25–0.5 MPa/s. The length of each FRP bar specimen was two times the diameter. Slightly oversized holes in the ends of the testing apparatus allowed some rotation at the ends of the specimens, thereby reducing the moments applied by the apparatus while still providing some end restraint, as shown in
Figure 3b.
Five bar specimens of each size were tested, and the average compressive strength and their standard deviations were reported, as shown in
Table 2 and
Table 3 for the GFRP and BFRP bars, respectively.
In general, the variation in the compressive strength results between the five specimens were reasonable for all sizes. However, and unlike their tensile strengths, the compressive strengths of both the GFRP and BFRP reported lower values at smaller sizes. In particular, the compressive of the 8 mm GFRP and BFRP bars were reduced by 45% and 12% as compared to 16 mm GFRP and BFRP bars, respectively. On the other hand, the compressive strengths of the BFRP bars were in the range of 35–41% of their tensile strengths. For the case of the GFRP bars, the compressive strengths of the 8, 12, and 16 mm bars were about 32, 51, and 64% of their tensile strengths.
One distinct failure mode was observed during the tests. The failure mode was a crushing failure in which the glass and basalt fibers separated from the resin matrix, as shown in
Figure 4.
4. Parametric Analysis: Performance of the GFRP- and BFRP-RC Columns
A parametric study was conducted to further investigate the response of the GFRP and BFRP bars in RC columns by considering different reinforcement ratios, column shapes and dimensions, concrete compressive strengths, and stirrups types. The effect of changing these parameters on the overall behavior of the RC columns is also presented and discussed. Two different column geometries with rectangular and circular cross-sections were investigated, as shown in
Figure 10 and
Figure 11, respectively.
The columns in the FE parametric study were divided into ten groups. Each group consisted of a total of 45 short RC columns, including a total of nine load eccentricities with five reinforcement ratios of 1%, 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8% for each load eccentricity, as listed in
Table 5.
Each column was labeled with a unique ID in each group. The first letter indicates the column cross-section type (S for square cross-section, and C for circular cross-section); the second letter refers to the type of reinforcement (G for GFRP, B for BFRP); the number after the second letter provides information about the width/diameter of the cross sectional area; the following letter denotes the tie material (S for steel, G for GFRP, and B for BFRP), followed by the eccentricity in mm; and, finally, the last number provides information about the concrete compressive strength used. As an example, S-G180-S80-40 indicates a square column of 180 mm width, reinforced with GFRP bars and steel ties, has a concrete compressive strength of 40 MPa, and loaded at 80 mm eccentricity.
The main objective of considering the 10 groups listed in
Table 5 was to investigate the effect of the different parameters on the overall responses of the FRP-RC columns and their interaction diagrams. For example, the difference between Group 1 and Group 2 is only the type of ties material (steel vs. GFRP) and the difference between Group 1 and Group 3 was the dimension of the square cross-section (180 mm vs. 200 mm). Furthermore, the concrete compressive strength considered for Group 10 was 30 MPa while the concrete compressive strength for the other nine groups was 40 MPa. The 450 columns were numerically analyzed, and the results are reported and discussed.
Figure 12 presents a sample of the load vs. displacement curves for columns of the 1% reinforcement ratio in Group 1, predicted using the FE models.
The results clearly illustrate the transition in the stiffness of the columns as well as ultimate compressive loads over the different eccentricities considered. After obtaining the load vs. displacement results for all groups, interaction diagrams were developed for the five different reinforcement ratios, as shown in
Figure 13,
Figure 14,
Figure 15,
Figure 16,
Figure 17,
Figure 18,
Figure 19,
Figure 20,
Figure 21 and
Figure 22, which correspond to the columns in Groups 1–10, respectively.
The axial load vs. displacement results were also utilized to study the contribution of the GFRP and BFRP bars to the total compressive strength of the concentric FRP-RC columns in all groups. The confined concrete strength factor and ductility indices for the concentric FRP-RC columns were also calculated and compared. The confined concrete strength factor (f’
cc) was calculated for each column as the difference between the peak load and force carried by the bars, divided by the confined concrete area (A
c) delineated by the centerline of the ties ((P
max−P
bar)/A
c). Values of the confined concrete strength factor (f’
cc) for concentrically loaded columns are shown in
Table 6.
Ductility is a desired property in structural design as it protects structures against unpredicted overloading and/or load reversals. It is therefore essential that RC columns possess adequate ductility. A method was developed by Pessiki and Peironi [
34] in which the column ductility is calculated as the ratio of the ultimate axial displacement (
δu) to the yield axial displacement (
δy), given by
DI =
δu/
δy. In this method, the yield displacement is estimated to be the axial displacement corresponding to the yield load or to the limit of the linear behavior. The ultimate displacement is assumed to be the axial displacement at 85% of the peak load in the post-peak descending portion of the load vs. displacement curve. The ductility index (DI) for the column is then calculated as the ratio of the displacements obtained for all columns, as shown in
Table 6.
Additionally, values of the force carried by the concrete (P
concrete), calculated as the difference between the ultimate load (P
max) and the load carried by the bars (P
bar), are shown in
Table 6 for all the concentric columns.